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Est. 1828

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CONSERVATIVE | English meaning - Cambridge Dictionary

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English (UK)

English

Meaning of conservative in English

conservativeadjective uk

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/kənˈsɜː.və.tɪv/ us

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/kənˈsɝː.və.t̬ɪv/

conservative adjective

(AGAINST CHANGE)

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C1 not usually liking or trusting change, especially sudden change: a conservative society/outlook Older people tend to be more conservative and a bit suspicious of anything new. Compare

liberal adjective (SOCIETY)

If you are conservative in your appearance, you usually do not like fashionable or modern clothes or hairstyles: He's a very conservative dresser - he always looks like he's wearing his father's clothes!

More examplesFewer examplesHe has a very conservative approach to management.She's very conservative in her eating habits.When it comes to music, my tastes are quite conservative.

SMART Vocabulary: related words and phrases

Custom, tradition & conformity

Americanization

anti-classical

anti-conventional

anti-institutional

anti-traditional

costume

counter-tradition

crowd

custom

demi-monde

multicultural

multiculturalism

multiculturally

non-classical

traditionally

ultra-conservatism

ultra-conservative

ultra-traditional

unconventional

See more results »

conservative adjective

(LOW)

A conservative guess or calculation is likely to be less than the real amount: conservative estimate If I said there were three million unemployed, that would be a conservative estimate.

SMART Vocabulary: related words and phrases

Cautious and vigilant

abundance

an abundance of caution idiom

askance

attentive

attentively

diligence

diligent

discreet

due diligence

gingerly

meticulously

meticulousness

mindful

minutely

narrowly

sedulous

sedulously

semi-conservative

slowly

snuffly

See more results »

Related word

conservatively Conservativeadjective uk

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/kənˈsɜː.və.tɪv/ us

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/kənˈsɝː.və.t̬ɪv/ (also Tory)

belonging to or supporting the British political party that traditionally supports business and opposes high taxes and government involvement in industry: the Conservative Party Conservative policies a Conservative MP/government Did you vote Conservative at the last election?

More examplesFewer examplesHe was a Conservative minister in the Thatcher government.She always votes Conservative.

SMART Vocabulary: related words and phrases

Politics - general words

anti-capitalism

anti-capitalist

anti-communism

anti-communist

anti-fascism

interpellate

interpellation

interventionist

lab

laissez-faire

Orwellian

overstep

parliament

party politics

personality cult

statesman

statesmanlike

stateswoman

subsidiarity

super-conservative

See more results »

Related word

Conservatism

Conservativenoun [ C ] uk

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/kənˈsɜː.və.tɪv/ us

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/kənˈsɝː.və.t̬ɪv/ (also Tory)

someone who belongs to or supports the Conservative Party of Great Britain (= a political party that traditionally supports business and opposes high taxes and government involvement in industry), or a similar party in another country: She's a staunch (= very loyal) Conservative. The Conservatives won an overall majority of ninety.

More examplesFewer examplesThe scheme is opposed by the Conservatives who have pledged to abolish it.Some prominent Conservatives have said they won't vote for him.He has been a Conservative all his life.

SMART Vocabulary: related words and phrases

Politics - general words

anti-capitalism

anti-capitalist

anti-communism

anti-communist

anti-fascism

interpellate

interpellation

interventionist

lab

laissez-faire

Orwellian

overstep

parliament

party politics

personality cult

statesman

statesmanlike

stateswoman

subsidiarity

super-conservative

See more results »

(Definition of conservative from the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary & Thesaurus © Cambridge University Press)

conservative | American Dictionary

conservativeadjective us

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/kənˈsɜr·və·t̬ɪv/

conservative adjective

(SOCIAL)

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tending to emphasize the importance of preserving traditional cultural and religious values, and to oppose change, esp. sudden change

If you are conservative in your appearance, you wear clothes in traditional colors and styles: He wore a conservative business suit for his interview.

conservatively adverb us

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/kənˈsɜr·və·t̬ɪv·li/

She was conservatively dressed in a gray suit.

conservative adjective

(POLITICAL)

politics & government tending to emphasize the importance of personal responsibility and traditional values and to oppose depending on government for social services: conservative Republicans

conservative noun [ C ] us

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/kənˈsɜr·və·t̬ɪv/

The Congressional committee had an equal number of conservatives and liberals.

conservative adjective

(LOW)

(of guesses and calculations) likely to be less than the real amount: Even by conservative estimates, the company will lose $2,000,000 this year.

(Definition of conservative from the Cambridge Academic Content Dictionary © Cambridge University Press)

conservative | Business English

conservativeadjective uk

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/kənˈsɜːvətɪv/ us

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not involving or taking unnecessary risks: The firm has always had a conservative approach to investment.

lower than the real figure or amount seems likely to be: a conservative estimate/figure

(Definition of conservative from the Cambridge Business English Dictionary © Cambridge University Press)

What is the pronunciation of conservative, Conservative?

Translations of conservative

in Chinese (Traditional)

反對改變, 保守的, 守舊的…

in Chinese (Simplified)

反对改变, 保守的, 守旧的…

in Spanish

conservador, de vestimenta conservadora, por lo bajo…

in Portuguese

conservador, conservadora, conservador/-ra [masculine-feminine]…

in more languages

in Marathi

in Japanese

in Turkish

in French

in Catalan

in Dutch

in Tamil

in Hindi

in Gujarati

in Danish

in Swedish

in Malay

in German

in Norwegian

in Urdu

in Ukrainian

in Russian

in Telugu

in Arabic

in Bengali

in Czech

in Indonesian

in Thai

in Vietnamese

in Polish

in Korean

in Italian

सनातनी, परंपरावादी, पारंपारिक…

保守的な, 保守党（支持者）, 保守的（ほしゅてき）な…

tutucu, muhafazakâr, sağcı…

conservateur/-trice, conventionnel/-elle, bas/basse…

conservador, -a…

conservatief…

பொதுவாக மாற்றத்தை விரும்புவதில்லை அல்லது நம்புவதில்லை, குறிப்பாக திடீர் மாற்றம், உங்கள் தோற்றத்தில் நீங்கள் பழமைவாதியாக இருந்தால்…

रूढ़िवादी, अनुदारवादी, (प्रायः अपने पहनावे में) रूढ़िवादी…

રૂઢીચુસ્ત, રૂઢિવાદી…

konservativ…

konservativ…

kolot, konservatif…

konservativ…

konservativ, tradisjonell, høyreorientert…

قدامت پرست, لیکر کا فقیر, جدت کا مخالف…

консервативний, реакційний…

консервативный, сторонник консервативной партии Великобритании…

సాప్రదాయిక, సాధారణంగా ఇష్టపడటం లేక నమ్మకం లేదు, ముఖ్యంగా ఆకస్మిక మార్పు…

مُحافِظ, تَقليدي…

রক্ষণশীল, গোঁড়া…

konzervativní…

kolot, konservatif…

ที่เป็นอนุรักษ์นิยม, (พรรคการเมือง) ที่เป็นอนุรักษ์นิยม…

bảo thủ…

konserwatywny, konserwatyst-a/ka…

보수주의의, 보수당…

conservatore, conservatorio…

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Contents

English

Adjective

conservative (AGAINST CHANGE)

conservative (LOW)

AdjectiveNoun

American

Adjective

conservative (SOCIAL)

conservative (POLITICAL)

conservative (LOW)

Adverb

conservatively

Noun

conservative

Business

Adjective

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Conservatism - Wikipedia

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Contents

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(Top)

1Themes

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1.1Tradition

1.2Hierarchy

1.3Realism

1.4Authority

1.5Reactionism

2Intellectual history

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2.1Proto-conservatism

2.2Philosophical founders

3Ideological variants

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3.1Liberal conservatism

3.2Libertarian conservatism

3.3Fiscal conservatism

3.4National conservatism

3.5Traditionalist conservatism

3.6Cultural conservatism

3.7Social conservatism

3.8Religious conservatism

3.9Paternalistic conservatism

3.10Progressive conservatism

3.11Authoritarian conservatism

4National variants

Toggle National variants subsection

4.1Asia

4.1.1India

4.1.2Singapore

4.1.3South Korea

4.2Europe

4.2.1Austria

4.2.2Belgium

4.2.3Denmark

4.2.4Finland

4.2.5France

4.2.6Germany

4.2.7Greece

4.2.8Iceland

4.2.9Italy

4.2.10Luxembourg

4.2.11Netherlands

4.2.12Norway

4.2.13Russia

4.2.14Sweden

4.2.15Switzerland

4.2.16Ukraine

4.2.17United Kingdom

4.3Latin America

4.3.1Brazil

4.3.2Chile

4.3.3Colombia

4.4North America

4.4.1Canada

4.4.2United States

4.5Oceania

4.5.1Australia

4.5.2New Zealand

5Psychology

Toggle Psychology subsection

5.1Conscientiousness

5.2Disgust sensitivity

5.3Authoritarianism

5.4Ambiguity intolerance

5.5Social dominance orientation

5.6Happiness

6Prominent conservative politicians

7See also

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7.1National variants

7.2Ideological variants

7.3Related topics

8References

9Bibliography

10Further reading

11External links

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Conservatism

125 languages

AfrikaansAlemannischአማርኛالعربيةAragonésঅসমীয়াAsturianuАварAzərbaycancaتۆرکجهবাংলাBân-lâm-gúБашҡортсаБеларускаяБеларуская (тарашкевіца)БългарскиBoarischBosanskiBrezhonegБуряадCatalàČeštinaCymraegDanskالدارجةDeutschEestiΕλληνικάEspañolEsperantoEuskaraفارسیFiji HindiFøroysktFrançaisFryskGaeilgeGalego한국어HausaՀայերենहिन्दीHrvatskiIdoIgboIlokanoBahasa IndonesiaInterlinguaÍslenskaItalianoעבריתКъарачай-малкъарქართულიҚазақшаKernowekKiswahiliKriyòl gwiyannenKurdîКыргызчаLatinaLatviešuLëtzebuergeschLietuviųLimburgsLingua Franca NovaLombardMagyarМакедонскиമലയാളംमराठीმარგალურიمصرىمازِرونیBahasa MelayuМонголမြန်မာဘာသာNederlandsनेपाली日本語НохчийнNorsk bokmålNorsk nynorskOccitanOʻzbekcha / ўзбекчаਪੰਜਾਬੀپنجابیپښتوPatoisភាសាខ្មែរPiemontèisPolskiPortuguêsRomânăRumantschРусиньскыйРусскийСаха тылаShqipසිංහලSimple EnglishSlovenčinaSlovenščinaکوردیСрпски / srpskiSrpskohrvatski / српскохрватскиSuomiSvenskaTagalogதமிழ்Татарча / tatarçaతెలుగుไทยTürkçeУкраїнськаاردوئۇيغۇرچە / UyghurcheVènetoTiếng ViệtWinaray吴语ייִדיש粵語ZazakiŽemaitėška中文

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Political philosophy focused on retaining traditional social institutions

"Conservatives" redirects here. For specific political parties, see Conservative Party.

This article is about conservatism as a political and social philosophy. For other uses of conservatism and conservative, see Conservatism (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with Conservation movement.

Part of a series onConservatism

Variants

Authoritarian

Corporatist

Cultural

Fiscal

Green

Liberal

Libertarian

Moderate

National

Paternalistic

Populist

Pragmatic

Progressive

Reactionary

Religious

Social

Traditionalist

Ultra

Principles

Ancestral worship

Authority

Traditional

Class collaboration

Convention

Cultural heritage

Culture of life

Pro-Life

Custom

Discipline

Duty

Elitism

Aristocracy

Meritocracy

Noblesse oblige

Ethical order

Familialism

Family values

Fundamentalism

Gender roles

Complementarianism

Historism

Honour

Imperialism

Law and order

Loyalty

Maternalism

Monarchism

Royalism

Ordered liberty

Organicism

Orthodoxy

Patriotism

Property rights

Public morality

Social hierarchy

Social institutions

Social norms

Social order

Sovereignty

Stewardship

Subsidiarity

Tradition

Intellectuals

Johnson

Hume

Burke

Maistre

Bonald

Haller

Chateaubriand

Coleridge

Karamzin

Savigny

Newman

Tocqueville

Cortés

Taine

Le Bon

Belloc

Iorga

Chesterton

Spengler

Savarkar

Schmitt

Jünger

Evola

Strauss

Röpke

Oakeshott

Burnham

Lefebvre

Kuehnelt-Leddihn

Gómez Dávila

Kirk

Koselleck

Buckley

Sowell

Mansfield

Scruton

Hitchens

Works

Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)

Considerations on France (1796)

Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism (1798)

The Genius of Christianity (1802)

On the Pope (1819)

Elements of the Philosophy of Right (1820)

Democracy in America (1835)

The Concept of the Political (1932)

The Conservative Mind (1953)

The Conscience of a Conservative (1960)

How to Be a Conservative (2014)

Politicians

Adams

Pitt

Canning

Metternich

Disraeli

Bismarck

Salisbury

Dmowski

Mannerheim

Baldwin

Maurras

Horthy

Metaxas

Churchill

Adenauer

De Gasperi

Chiang

Salazar

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Dollfuss

Franco

Reagan

Powell

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Park

Smith

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Lee

Thatcher

Kohl

Fujimori

Trump

Netanyahu

Modi

Bolsonaro

Orbán

Meloni

Organizations

Centrist Democrat International

European Conservatives and ReformistsParty

European People's Party

Identity and Democracy

International Democrat Union

Muslim Brotherhood

Tradition, Family, Property

Religion

Anglo-Catholicism

Christian right

Clericalism

Confucianism

Conservative Christianity

Hindutva

Islamism

Jewish conservatism

Religious Zionism

Traditionalist Catholicism

Integralism

Ultramontanism

Traditionalist School

Perennialism

Personal variants

Berlusconism

Cameronism

Chiangism

Erdoğanism

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Fujimorism

Gaullism

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Australia

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Brazil

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Finland

France

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United Kingdom

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Historical background

Ancien Régime

Bourbon Restauration

Congress of Vienna

Conservative Order

Counter-Enlightenment

Counter-revolution

German Romanticism

Holy Alliance

Ultra-royalism

White Terror

Related ideologies

Agrarianism

Christian democracy

Clerical fascism

Communitarianism

Conservative liberalism

Corporatism

Ordoliberalism

Related topics

Anti-communism

Anti-gender movement

Black conservatism

United States

Catholic social teaching

Conservative feminism

Conservative wave

Hispanic conservatism

United States

LGBT conservatism

Nativism

Neoauthoritarianism (China)

Patriarchy

Right realism

Right-wing politics

Authoritarianism

Far

New

Radical

Small-c conservative

Toryism

Conservatism portal

Politics portalvte

Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy that seeks to promote and to preserve traditional institutions, customs, and values.[1][2][3] The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civilization in which it appears.[4] In Western culture, depending on the particular nation, conservatives seek to promote a range of institutions, such as the nuclear family, organized religion, the military, the nation-state, property rights, rule of law, aristocracy, and monarchy.[5] Conservatives tend to favour institutions and practices that guarantee social order and historical continuity.[6]

Edmund Burke, an 18th-century Anglo-Irish statesman who opposed the French Revolution but supported the American Revolution, is credited as one of the philosophers of conservatism in the beginning stage,[7] with the other being Joseph de Maistre during a similar time period.[8] [9] The first established use of the term in a political context originated in 1818 with François-René de Chateaubriand during the period of Bourbon Restoration that sought to roll back the policies of the French Revolution and establish social order.[10]

Conservative thought has varied considerably as it has adapted itself to existing traditions and national cultures.[11] Thus, conservatives from different parts of the world—each upholding their respective traditions—may disagree on a wide range of issues. Historically associated with right-wing politics, the term has been used to describe a wide range of views. Conservatism may be either more libertarian or more authoritarian; more populist or more elitist; more progressive or more reactionary; more moderate or more extreme.[12][13]

Themes[edit]

Some political scientists, such as Samuel P. Huntington, have seen conservatism as situational. Under this definition, conservatives are seen as defending the established institutions of their time.[14] According to Quintin Hogg, the chairman of the British Conservative Party in 1959: "Conservatism is not so much a philosophy as an attitude, a constant force, performing a timeless function in the development of a free society, and corresponding to a deep and permanent requirement of human nature itself."[15] Conservatism is often used as a generic term to describe a "right-wing viewpoint occupying the political spectrum between [classical] liberalism and fascism".[1]

Not all conservatives consider a free society an important part of conservative philosophy, and have a more skeptical view of human nature. According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, Edmund Burke, often called the father of conservative philosophy, shocked his contemporaries by insisting with brutal frankness that 'illusions' and 'prejudices' are socially necessary. He believed that most human beings are innately depraved, steeped in original sin, and unable to better themselves with their feeble reason. Better, he said, to rely on the 'latent wisdom' of prejudice, which accumulates slowly through the years, than to 'put men to live and trade each on his own private stock of reason.' Among such prejudices are those that favour an established church and a landed aristocracy; members of the latter, according to Burke, are the 'great oaks' and 'proper chieftains' of society, provided that they temper their rule with a spirit of timely reform and remain within the constitutional framework.'"[16]

Tradition[edit]

Despite the lack of a universal definition, certain themes can be recognised as common across conservative thought. According to Michael Oakeshott:

To be conservative […] is to prefer the familiar to the unknown, to prefer the tried to the untried, fact to mystery, the actual to the possible, the limited to the unbounded, the near to the distant, the sufficient to the superabundant, the convenient to the perfect, present laughter to utopian bliss.[17]

Such traditionalism may be a reflection of trust in time-tested methods of social organisation, giving 'votes to the dead'.[18] Traditions may also be steeped in a sense of identity.[18]

Hierarchy[edit]

In contrast to the tradition-based definition of conservatism, some left-wing political theorists like Corey Robin define conservatism primarily in terms of a general defense of social and economic inequality.[19] From this perspective, conservatism is less an attempt to uphold old institutions and more "a meditation on—and theoretical rendition of—the felt experience of having power, seeing it threatened, and trying to win it back".[20] On another occasion, Robin argues for a more complex relation:

Conservatism is a defense of established hierarchies, but it is also fearful of those established hierarchies. It sees in their assuredness of power the source of corruption, decadence and decline. Ruling regimes require some kind of irritant, a grain of sand in the oyster, to reactivate their latent powers, to exercise their atrophied muscles, to make their pearls.[21]

Political philosopher Yoram Hazony argues that, in a traditional conservative community, members have importance and influence to the degree they are honoured within the social hierarchy, which includes factors such as age, experience, and wisdom.[22] The word hierarchy has religious roots and translates to 'rule of a high priest.'[23]

Realism[edit]

Conservatism has been called a "philosophy of human imperfection" by Noël O'Sullivan, reflecting among its adherents a negative view of human nature and pessimism of the potential to improve it through 'utopian' schemes.[24] The "intellectual godfather of the realist right", Thomas Hobbes, argued that the state of nature for humans was "poor, nasty, brutish, and short", requiring centralised authority.[25]

Authority[edit]

Authority is a core tenet of conservatism.[26][27][28] More specifically, conservatives tend to believe in traditional authority. This form of authority, according to Max Weber, is "resting on an established belief in the sanctity of immemorial traditions and the legitimacy of those exercising authority under them".[29][30] Alexandre Kojève distinguishes between two different forms of traditional authority:

The Authority of the Father—represented by actual fathers as well as conceptual fathers such as priests and monarchs.

The Authority of the Master—represented by aristocrats and military commanders.[31]

Robert Nisbet acknowledges that the decline of traditional authority in the modern world is partly linked with the retreat of old institutions such as guild, order, parish, and family—institutions that formerly acted as intermediaries between the state and the individual.[32][33] Hannah Arendt claims that the modern world suffers an existential crisis with a "dramatic breakdown of all traditional authorities," which are needed for the continuity of an established civilisation.[34][35]

Reactionism[edit]

Main article: Reactionary

Reactionism is a tradition in right-wing politics that opposes policies for the social transformation of society.[36] In popular usage, reactionism refers to a staunch traditionalist conservative political perspective of a person who supports the status quo and opposes social, political, and economic change.[37] Some adherents of conservatism, rather than opposing change, seek to return to the status quo ante and tend to view the modern world in a negative light, especially concerning mass culture and secularism, although different groups of reactionaries may choose different traditional values to revive.[6][38]

Some political scientists, such as Corey Robin, treat the words reactionary and conservative as synonyms.[39] Others, such as Mark Lilla, argue that reactionism and conservatism are distinct worldviews.[40] Francis Wilson defines conservatism as "a philosophy of social evolution, in which certain lasting values are defended within the framework of the tension of political conflict".[41]

Thus some reactionaries favor a return to the status quo ante, the previous political state of society, which that person believes possessed positive characteristics absent from contemporary society. An early example of a powerful reactionary movement was German Romanticism, which centered around concepts of organicism, medievalism, and traditionalism against the forces of rationalism, secularism, and individualism that were unleashed in the French Revolution.[42]

In political discourse, being a reactionary is generally regarded as negative; Peter King observed that it is "an unsought-for label, used as a torment rather than a badge of honor".[43] Despite this, the descriptor has been adopted by writers such as the Italian esoteric traditionalist Julius Evola,[44] the Austrian monarchist Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn,[45] the Colombian political theologian Nicolás Gómez Dávila, and the American historian John Lukacs.[46]

Intellectual history[edit]

Proto-conservatism[edit]

Part of the Politics series onToryism

Characteristics

Agrarianism

Classicism

Counterrevolution

High Church (Anglicanism)

High culture

Interventionism

Loyalism

Monarchism

Noblesse oblige

Traditionalism

Traditional Catholicism

Royalism

Unionism

General topics

Cavaliers

Cavalier Parliament

Château Clique

Conservative corporatism

Divine right of kings

Family Compact

Jacobitism

Oxford Movement

Powellism

People

Robert Filmer

1st Earl of Clarendon

Roger L'Estrange

1st Earl of Rochester

1st Viscount Bolingbroke

Samuel Johnson

3rd Earl of Bute

1st Duke of Wellington

Walter Scott

Stanley Baldwin

G. K. Chesterton

Winston Churchill

Enoch Powell

George Grant

Related topics

Carlism

Chouans

Cristeros

Conservatism

Distributism

High Tory

Legitimism

Loyalism

Miguelism

Pink Tory

Reactionary

Red Tory

Spanish American royalism

Sanfedismo

Tory socialism

Traditionalist conservatism

Ultra-Tories

Vendéens

Viva Maria

Veronese Easter

vte

In Great Britain, the Tory movement during the Restoration period (1660–1688) was a form of proto-conservatism that supported a hierarchical society with a monarch who ruled by divine right. However, Tories differ from most later, more moderate, mainstream conservatives in that they opposed the idea of popular sovereignty and rejected the authority of parliament and freedom of religion. Robert Filmer's royalist treatise Patriarcha (published in 1680 but written before the English Civil War of 1642–1651) became accepted as the statement of their doctrine.

However, the Glorious Revolution of 1688 damaged this principle by establishing a constitutional government in England, leading to the hegemony of the Tory-opposed Whig ideology. Faced with defeat, the Tories reformed their movement. They adopted more moderate conservative positions, such as holding that sovereignty was vested in the three estates of Crown, Lords, and Commons rather than solely in the Crown.[47] Richard Hooker (1554–1600), Marquess of Halifax (1633–1695) and David Hume (1711–1776) were proto-conservatives of the period. Halifax promoted pragmatism in government whilst Hume argued against political rationalism and utopianism.[10][48]

Philosophical founders[edit]

Edmund Burke (1729–1797) has been regarded as one of the philosophical founders of modern conservatism,[49][50] predominantly in the British region. Burke served as the private secretary to the Marquis of Rockingham and as official pamphleteer to the Rockingham branch of the Whig party.[51] Together with the Tories, they were the conservatives in the late 18th century United Kingdom.[52]

Edmund Burke (1729–1797)

As a follower of the Whig Party, Burke's views were a mixture of conservatism and republicanism. [53] He supported the American Revolution of 1775–1783 but abhorred the violence of the French Revolution of 1789–1799. He accepted the conservative ideals of private property and the economics of Adam Smith (1723–1790), but thought that economics should remain subordinate to the conservative social ethic, that capitalism should be subordinate to the medieval social tradition, and that the business class should be subordinate to aristocracy.[54] He insisted on standards of honour derived from the medieval aristocratic tradition and saw the aristocracy as the nation's natural leaders.[55] That meant limits on the powers of the Crown, since he found the institutions of Parliament to be better informed than commissions appointed by the executive. He favored an established church, but allowed for a degree of religious toleration.[56] Burke ultimately justified the social order on the basis of tradition: tradition represented the wisdom of the species, and he valued community and social harmony over social reforms.[57]

Joseph de Maistre (1753–1821)

Another form of conservatism was developed in France in parallel to conservatism in Britain. It was influenced by Counter-Enlightenment works by philosophers such as Joseph de Maistre (1753–1821), as well as Louis de Bonald (1754–1840). Many European continental conservatives of that time did not support separation of church and state, with most supporting state cooperation with the Catholic Church, such as had existed in France before the Revolution. Conservatives were also early to embrace nationalism, which was previously associated with liberalism and the Revolution in France.[58] Another early French conservative, François-René de Chateaubriand (1768–1848), espoused a romantic opposition to modernity, contrasting its emptiness with the 'full heart' of traditional faith and loyalty.[59] Elsewhere on the continent, German thinkers Justus Möser (1720–1794) and Friedrich von Gentz (1764–1832) criticized the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen that came of the Revolution. Opposition was also expressed by German idealists such as Adam Müller (1779–1829) and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1771–1830), the latter inspiring both leftist and rightist followers.[60]

Both Burke and Maistre were critical of democracy in general, though their reasons differed. Maistre was pessimistic about humans being able to follow rules, while Burke was skeptical about humans' innate ability to make rules. For Maistre, rules had a divine origin, while Burke believed they arose from custom. The lack of custom for Burke, and the lack of divine guidance for Maistre, meant that people would act in terrible ways. Both also believed that liberty of the wrong kind led to bewilderment and political breakdown. Their ideas would together flow into a stream of anti-rationalist, romantic conservatism, but would still stay separate. Whereas Burke was more open to argumentation and disagreement, Maistre wanted faith and authority, leading to a more illiberal strain of thought in contrast[61]

Ideological variants[edit]

Liberal conservatism[edit]

Main article: Liberal conservatism

Not to be confused with Conservative liberalism.

Ulf Kristersson, leader of the liberal-conservative Moderate Party and incumbent Prime Minister of Sweden

Liberal conservatism is a variant of conservatism that is strongly influenced by liberal stances.[62] It incorporates the classical liberal view of minimal economic interventionism, meaning that individuals should be free to participate in the market and generate wealth without government interference.[63] However, individuals cannot be thoroughly depended on to act responsibly in other spheres of life; therefore, liberal conservatives believe that a strong state is necessary to ensure law and order, and social institutions are needed to nurture a sense of duty and responsibility to the nation.[63]

Originally opposed to capitalism and the industrial revolution,[64][65] the conservative ideology in many countries adopted economic liberalism. This is especially the case in countries where liberal economic ideas have been the norm such as the United States and are thus considered conservative.[66]

Post-World War II Germany developed a special form of liberal conservatism called ordoliberalism, which is centered around the concept of ordered liberty.[67] Neither socialist nor capitalist, it promotes a compromise between state and market, and argues that the national culture of a country must be taken into account when implementing economic policies.[68] Alexander Rüstow and Wilhelm Röpke were two prominent exponents of this economic theory, and its implementation is largely credited as a reason behind the German miracle—the rapid reconstruction and development of the war-wrecked economies of West Germany and Austria after World War II.[69]

Libertarian conservatism[edit]

Main article: Libertarian conservatism

Libertarian conservatism describes certain political ideologies most prominently within the United States which combine libertarian economic issues with aspects of conservatism. Its four main branches are constitutionalism, paleolibertarianism, limited government conservatism, and Christian libertarianism. They generally differ from paleoconservatives, in that they favor more personal and economic freedom. The agorist philosopher Samuel Edward Konkin III labeled libertarian conservatism right-libertarianism.[70] Frank Meyer coined the term fusionism to describe the combination of traditionalist and social conservatism with political and economic right-libertarianism.[71]

In contrast to paleoconservatives, libertarian conservatives support strict laissez-faire policies such as free trade and opposition to business regulations and any national bank. They are often opposed to environmental regulations, corporate welfare, subsidies, and other areas of economic intervention. Many conservatives, especially in the United States, believe that the government should not play a major role in regulating business and managing the economy. They typically oppose high taxes and income redistribution. Such efforts, they argue, only serve to exacerbate the scourge of unemployment and poverty by lessening the ability for businesses to hire employees due to higher tax impositions.[citation needed]

Fiscal conservatism[edit]

Main article: Fiscal conservatism

2009 Taxpayer March on Washington as conservative protesters walk down Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, D.C.

Fiscal conservatism is the economic philosophy of prudence in government spending and debt.[72] In Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), Edmund Burke argued that a government does not have the right to run up large debts and then throw the burden on the taxpayer:

[I]t is to the property of the citizen, and not to the demands of the creditor of the state, that the first and original faith of civil society is pledged. The claim of the citizen is prior in time, paramount in title, superior in equity. The fortunes of individuals, whether possessed by acquisition or by descent or in virtue of a participation in the goods of some community, were no part of the creditor's security, expressed or implied...[T]he public, whether represented by a monarch or by a senate, can pledge nothing but the public estate; and it can have no public estate except in what it derives from a just and proportioned imposition upon the citizens at large.

National conservatism[edit]

Main article: National conservatism

Giorgia Meloni, leader of the national-conservative party Brothers of Italy as well as the first female Prime Minister of Italy

National conservatism is a political term used primarily in Europe to describe a variant of conservatism which concentrates more on national interests than standard conservatism as well as upholding cultural and ethnic identity,[73] while not being outspokenly ultra-nationalist or supporting a far-right approach.[74]

National conservatism is oriented towards upholding national sovereignty, which includes limited immigration and a strong national defence. In Europe, national conservatives are usually eurosceptics.[75][76] Yoram Hazony has argued for national conservatism in his work The Virtue of Nationalism (2018).[77]

Traditionalist conservatism[edit]

Main article: Traditional conservatism

Traditionalist conservatism, also known as classical conservatism, emphasizes the need for the principles of natural law, transcendent moral order, tradition, hierarchy, organicism, agrarianism, classicism, and high culture as well as the intersecting spheres of loyalty.[78] Some traditionalists have embraced the labels reactionary and counter-revolutionary, defying the stigma that has attached to these terms since the Enlightenment. Having a hierarchical view of society, many traditionalist conservatives, including a few notable Americans such as Ralph Adams Cram,[79] William S. Lind,[80] and Charles A. Coulombe,[81] defend the monarchical political structure as the most natural and beneficial social arrangement.

Cultural conservatism[edit]

Main article: Cultural conservatism

Cultural conservatives support the preservation of a cultural heritage, either of a nation or a shared culture that is not defined by national boundaries. The shared culture may be as divergent as Western culture or Chinese culture. In the United States, the term "cultural conservative" may imply a conservative position in the culture war. Cultural conservatives hold fast to traditional ways of thinking even in the face of monumental change, strongly believing in traditional values and traditional politics.[82]

Social conservatism[edit]

Main article: Social conservatism

2012 March for Life in Paris, France

Social conservatives believe that society is built upon a fragile network of relationships which need to be upheld through duty, traditional values, and established institutions; and that the government has a role in encouraging or enforcing traditional values or practices. A social conservative wants to preserve traditional morality and social mores, often by opposing what they consider radical policies or social engineering.[83] Some social-conservative stances are the following:

Support of a culture of life and opposition to the destruction of human life at any stage, including abortion, embryonic stem cells research, and euthanasia.

Support of bioconservatism and opposition to both eugenics and transhumanism.[84]

Support of traditional family values, viewing the nuclear family model as society's foundational unit.

Support of a traditional definition of marriage as being one man and one woman, and opposition to expansion of civil marriage and child adoption to couples in same-sex relationships.

Support of public morality with prohibition of drugs and prostitution and censorship of pornography.

Support of organized religion and opposition to atheism and secularism, especially when militant.[85][86][87]

Religious conservatism [edit]

See also: Christian democracy, Christian right, Hindutva, Integralism, Islamism, Religious Zionism, and Haredi Judaism

Logo for the Traditionalist Catholic activist organization Tradition, Family, Property

Religious conservatism principally applies the teachings of particular religions to politics—sometimes by merely proclaiming the value of those teachings, at other times by having those teachings influence laws.[88]

In most democracies, political conservatism seeks to uphold traditional family structures and social values. Religious conservatives typically oppose abortion, LGBT behaviour (or, in certain cases, identity), drug use,[89] and sexual activity outside of marriage. In some cases, conservative values are grounded in religious beliefs, and conservatives seek to increase the role of religion in public life.[90]

Paternalistic conservatism[edit]

Main article: Paternalistic conservatism

Paternalistic conservatism is a strand in conservatism which reflects the belief that societies exist and develop organically and that members within them have obligations towards each other.[91] There is particular emphasis on the paternalistic obligation (noblesse oblige) of those who are privileged and wealthy to the poorer parts of society, which is consistent with principles such as duty, organicism, and hierarchy. Paternal conservatives support neither the individual nor the state in principle, but are instead prepared to support either or recommend a balance between the two depending on what is most practical.[92] Paternalistic conservatives historically favour a more aristocratic view and are ideologically related to High Tories.[citation needed]

In more contemporary times, its proponents stress the importance of a social safety net to deal with poverty, supporting limited redistribution of wealth along with government regulation of markets in the interests of both consumers and producers.[93] Paternalistic conservatism first arose as a distinct ideology in the United Kingdom under Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli's "One Nation" Toryism.[94] There have been a variety of one-nation conservative governments in the United Kingdom with exponents such as Prime Ministers Disraeli, Stanley Baldwin, Neville Chamberlain, Winston Churchill, and Harold Macmillan.[95]

In 19th-century Germany, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck adopted a set of social programs, known as state socialism, which included insurance for workers against sickness, accident, incapacity, and old age. The goal of this conservative state-building strategy was to make ordinary Germans, not just the Junker aristocracy, more loyal to state and Emperor.[6] Chancellor Leo von Caprivi promoted a conservative agenda called the "New Course".[96]

Progressive conservatism[edit]

Main article: Progressive conservatism

In the United States, Theodore Roosevelt has been identified as the main exponent of progressive conservatism. Roosevelt stated that he had "always believed that wise progressivism and wise conservatism go hand in hand".[97] The Republican administration of President William Howard Taft was progressive conservative, and he described himself as a believer in progressive conservatism.[97] President Dwight D. Eisenhower also declared himself an advocate of progressive conservatism.[98]

In Canada, a variety of conservative governments have been part of the Red Tory tradition, with Canada's former major conservative party being named the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada from 1942 to 2003.[99] Prime Ministers Arthur Meighen, R. B. Bennett, John Diefenbaker, Joe Clark, Brian Mulroney, and Kim Campbell led Red tory federal governments.[99]

Authoritarian conservatism[edit]

Main article: Authoritarian conservatism

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Anti-North sentiment

Chaebol

Chojoongdong

Politics of South Korea

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South Korean politician and army general Park Chung Hee seized power in the May 16 coup of 1961, after which he was elected as the third President of South Korea. He introduced the highly authoritarian Yushin Constitution, ushering in the Fourth Republic. He ruled the country as a dictator until his assassination in 1979.[126]

South Korea's major conservative party, the People Power Party, has changed its form throughout its history. First it was the Democratic-Liberal Party and its first head was Roh Tae-woo, who was the first President of the Sixth Republic of South Korea. Democratic-Liberal Party was founded by the merging of Roh Tae-woo's Democratic Justice Party, Kim Young Sam's Reunification Democratic Party and Kim Jong-pil's New Democratic Republican Party. Kim Young-sam became the fourteenth President of Korea.

When the conservative party was beaten by the opposition party in the general election, it changed its form again to follow the party members' demand for reforms. It became the New Korea Party, but it changed again one year later since the President Kim Young-sam was blamed by the citizen for the International Monetary Fund.[clarification needed] It changed its name to Grand National Party (GNP). Since the late Kim Dae-jung assumed the presidency in 1998, GNP had been the opposition party until Lee Myung-bak won the presidential election of 2007.

Europe[edit]

European conservatism has taken many different expressions. During the first half of the 20th century, as socialism was gaining power around the world, conservatism in countries such as Austria, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Portugal, and Spain transformed into the far-right, becoming more authoritarian and extreme.[127]

European nations, with the exception of Switzerland, have had a long monarchical tradition throughout history. Today, existing monarchies are Andorra, Belgium, Denmark, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Monaco, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. Some reactionary movements in republican nations, such as Action Française in France, the Monarchist National Party in Italy, and the Black-Yellow Alliance in Austria, have advocated the restoration of the monarchy.

Austria[edit]

Part of a series onConservatism in Austria

Themes

Austrian nationalism

Catholic social teaching

Christian democracy

Clericalism

Corporate statism

Green conservatism

Imperialism

Liberal conservatism

Monarchism

Multiculturalism

Organicism

Political Catholicism

Subsidiarity

Tradition

Intellectuals

Burger

Feigl

von Gentz

von Hayek

von Hofmannsthal

von Kuehnelt-Leddihn

Mannheim

Müller

Schönfeld

Spann

Tschugguel

von Vogelsang

Politicians

von Coudenhove-Kalergi

Dollfuss

Figl

von Gentz

von Habsburg

Haider

von Hohenwart

Klaus

Kurz

Nehammer

Schuschnigg

von Metternich

de Paula Maria

Raab

Rosenkranz

Schüssel

Stadler

Starhemberg

Taaffe

von Vogelsang

PartiesActive

Alliance for the Future of Austria

Austrian People's Party

Christian Party of Austria

Freedom Party of Austria

Defunct

Catholic People's Party

Christian Social Party

Fatherland Front

The Reform Conservatives

Team Stronach

Organisations

Black-Yellow Alliance

Heimwehr

Media

Kleine Zeitung

Neues Volksblatt

Salzburger Nachrichten

Tiroler Tageszeitung

Wiener Zeitung

Österreich

History

Austria-Hungary

Austrian Civil War

Austrian Empire

Carlsbad Decrees

Congress of Vienna

Federal State of Austria

Habsburg monarchy

Related topics

Austrian nobility

Conservatism in Germany

Culture of Austria

German nationalism in Austria

Pan Germanism

Conservatism portal

Austria portalvte

Austrian conservatism originated with Prince Klemens von Metternich (1773–1859), who was the architect behind the monarchist and imperialist Conservative Order that was enacted at the Congress of Vienna in the aftermath of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars.[6] The goal was to establish a European balance of power that could guarantee peace and suppress republican and nationalist movements.[128] During its existence, the Austrian Empire was the third most populous monarchy in Europe after the Russian Empire and the United Kingdom. Following its defeat in the Austro-Prussian War, it transformed into the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which was the most diverse state in Europe with twelve nationalities living under a unifying monarch.[129] The Empire was fragmented in the aftermath of World War I, ushering in the democratic First Austrian Republic.

The Austrian Civil War in 1934 saw a series of skirmishes between the right-wing government and socialist forces. When the insurgents were defeated, the government declared martial law and held mass trials, forcing leading socialist politicians, such as Otto Bauer, into exile.[130] The conservatives banned the Social Democratic Party and replaced parliamentary democracy with a corporatist and clerical constitution. The Patriotic Front, into which the paramilitary Heimwehr and the Christian Social Party were merged, became the only legal political party in the resulting authoritarian regime, the Federal State of Austria.[131]

While having close ties to Fascist Italy, which was still a monarchy as well as a fellow Catholic nation, rightist Austria harboured strong anti-Prussian and anti-Nazi sentiment. Austria’s most influential conservative philosopher, the Catholic aristocrat Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn, published many books in which he interpreted Nazism as a leftist, ochlocratic, and demagogic ideology, opposed to the traditional rightist ideals of aristocracy, monarchy, and Christianity.[132] Austria's dictator Engelbert Dollfuss saw Nazism as another form of totalitarian communism, and he saw Adolf Hitler as the German version of Joseph Stalin. The conservatives banned the Austrian Nazi Party and arrested many of its activists.[133] In 1934, Dollfus was assassinated by Nazi enemies who sought revenge.[107] In response, Benito Mussolini mobilised a part of the Italian army on the Austrian border and threatened Hitler with war in the event of a German invasion of Austria. In 1938, when Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss, conservative groups were suppressed: members of the Austrian nobility and the Catholic clergy were arrested and their properties were confiscated.[134]

Following World War II and the return to democracy, Austrian conservatives abandoned the authoritarianism of its past, believing in the principles of class collaboration and political compromise, while Austrian socialists also abandoned their extremism and distanced themselves from the totalitarianism of the Soviet Union.[135] The conservatives formed the Austrian People's Party, which has been the major conservative party in Austria ever since. In contemporary politics, the party was led by Sebastian Kurz, whom the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung nicknamed the "young Metternich".[136]

Belgium[edit]

Having its roots in the conservative Catholic Party, the Christian People's Party retained a conservative edge through the 20th century, supporting the King in the Royal Question, supporting nuclear family as the cornerstone of society, defending Christian education, and opposing euthanasia. The Christian People's Party dominated politics in post-war Belgium. In 1999, the party's support collapsed, and it became the country's fifth-largest party.[137][138][139] Since 2014, the Flemish nationalist and conservative New Flemish Alliance is the largest party in Belgium.[140]

Denmark[edit]

This article is part of a series onConservatism in Denmark

Principles

Agrarianism

Lutheranism

Monarchism

National romanticism

Nationalism

Nativism

Patriotism

Populism

Property rights

Rule of law

State church

Tradition

Intellectuals

Bjørnvig

Kierkegaard

Krarup

Langballe

Løgstrup

Møller

Oehlenschläger

Politicians

Kjærsgaard

Krarup

Langballe

Mikkelsen

Møller (Aksel)

Møller (John)

Møller (Per)

Reedtz-Thott

Schlüter

Støjberg

Vermund

Ørsted

Parties

Conservative People's Party

Danish People's Party

Denmark Democrats

Free Conservatives

Højre

New Right

People's Party

Progress Party

Media

Billed Bladet

Dags-Telegrafen

Det nye Danmark

Heretica

Jyllands-Posten

Punch

Tidehverv

Related topics

Culture of Denmark

Canon

Danish Realm

Jyllands-Posten controversy

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Danish conservatism emerged with the political grouping Højre (literally "Right"), which due to its alliance with King Christian IX of Denmark dominated Danish politics and formed all governments from 1865 to 1901. When a constitutional reform in 1915 stripped the landed gentry of political power, Højre was succeeded by the Conservative People's Party of Denmark, which has since then been the main Danish conservative party.[141] Another Danish conservative party was the Free Conservatives, who were active between 1902 and 1920. Traditionally and historically, conservatism in Denmark has been more populist and agrarian than in Sweden and Norway, where conservatism has been more elitist and urban.[142]

The Conservative People's Party led the government coalition from 1982 to 1993. The party had previously been member of various governments from 1916 to 1917, 1940 to 1945, 1950 to 1953, and 1968 to 1971. The party was a junior partner in governments led by the Liberals from 2001 to 2011[143] and again from 2016 to 2019. The party is preceded by 11 years by the Young Conservatives (KU), today the youth movement of the party.

The Conservative People's Party had a stable electoral support close to 15 to 20% at almost all general elections from 1918 to 1971. In the 1970s it declined to around 5%, but then under the leadership of Poul Schlüter reached its highest popularity level ever in 1984, receiving 23% of the votes. Since the late 1990s the party has obtained around 5 to 10% of the vote. In 2022, the party received 5.5% of the vote.[144]

Conservative thinking has also influenced other Danish political parties. In 1995, the Danish People's Party was founded, based on a mixture of conservative, nationalist, and social-democratic ideas.[141] In 2015, the party New Right was established, professing a national-conservative attitude.[145]

The conservative parties in Denmark have always considered the monarchy a central institution in Denmark.[146][147][148][149]

Finland[edit]

The conservative party in Finland is the National Coalition Party. The party was founded in 1918, when several monarchist parties united. Although right-wing in the past, today it is a moderate liberal-conservative party. While advocating economic liberalism, it is committed to the social market economy.[150]

There has been strong anti-Russian and anti-communist sentiment in Finland due to its long history of being invaded and conquered by Russia and the Soviet Union.[151][152] In the Finnish Civil War of 1918, the rightist White Finland defeated the leftist Red Finland.[153] The paramilitary White Guard, led by Baron Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, was assisted by the German Imperial Army at the request of the Finnish civil government. The far-right Lapua movement continued to terrorize communists in post-war Finland, but it was banned after a failed coup d'etat attempt in 1932.[154]

France[edit]

This article is part of a series onConservatism in France

Ideologies

French nationalism

Integral

Nouvelle Droite

Gaullism

Political Catholicism

Integralism

Ultramontanism

Révolution nationale

Royalism

Bonapartism

Legitimism

Maurrassisme

Orléanism

Ultra-royalism

Sarkozysm

Principles

Anti-communism

Catholic social teaching

Christian democracy

Counter-revolution

Elitism

Noblesse oblige

Family values

Monarchism

Restauration

Patriotism

Social hierarchy

Social order

Souverainism

Traditional authority

Traditionalism

Intellectuals

Barbey d'Aurevilly

Bainville

Barrès

Barruel

Bellamy

de Benoist

Blanc de Saint-Bonnet

de Bonald

Boutang

de Chateaubriand

Daudet

Dimier

Faye

Ferré

Guénon

de Gobineau

de Jouvenel

de La Mennais

Le Bon

Lefebvre

Lemaître

Le Play

de Maistre

Massis

Maurras

des Mousseaux

d'Ornellas

Pujo

de Rivarol

Rueff

Taine

de Tocqueville

Veuillot

Zemmour

Works

Considerations on France (1796)

Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism (1797)

The Genius of Christianity (1802)

On the Pope (1819)

Democracy in America (1835)

An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1855)

The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind (1895)

The Reign of Quantity and the Signs of the Times (1945)

The French Suicide (2014)

Politicians

Bellamy

de Bonald

Cathelineau

de Chateaubriand

Ciotti

de La Tour du Pin

de Gaulle

Juppé

Le Pen (Jean-Marie)

Le Pen (Marine)

Maurras

MacMahon

Pécresse

Poincaré

Poisson

de Polignac

Sarkozy

Schuman

de Vaublanc

de Villèle

Zemmour

PartiesActive

Alliance Royale

Debout la France

French Future

The Nationalists

Future with Confidence

National Centre of Independents & Peasants

Reconquête

The Republicans

Soyons libres

VIA, the Way of the People

Defunct

Feuillants

French Agrarian and Peasant Party

French Social Party

Movement for France

Independent Republicans

Party of Order

Rally for France

Rally for the Republic

Republican Federation

Resistance Party

OrganisationsActive

Action Française

Initiative and Liberty Movement

La Manif pour tous

March for Life

Student Cockade

Union Nationale Inter-universitaire

Defunct

Camelots du Roi

Cercle Proudhon

Civitas

Croix-de-Feu

Independent Republicans

Media

CNews

Famille chrétienne

L'Écho du Sud

La Croix

La Nation française

Le Figaro

Le Figaro Magazine

Le Point

Minute

Radio Courtoisie

Valeurs actuelles

Related topics

Ancien Régime

Bourbon Restoration

French Revolution

Monarchiens

First White Terror

Second White Terror

Sinistrisme

Vichy France

Conservatism portal

France portalvte

Early conservatism in France focused on the rejection of the secularism of the French Revolution, support for the role of the Catholic Church, and the restoration of the monarchy.[155] After the first fall of Napoleon in 1814, the House of Bourbon returned to power in the Bourbon Restoration. Louis XVIII and Charles X, brothers of the executed King Louis XVI, successively mounted the throne and instituted a conservative government intended to restore the proprieties, if not all the institutions, of the Ancien Régime.[156]

After the July Revolution of 1830, Louis Philippe I, a member of the more liberal Orléans branch of the House of Bourbon, proclaimed himself as King of the French. The Second French Empire saw an Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870. The Bourbon monarchist cause was on the verge of victory in the 1870s, but then collapsed because the proposed king, Henri, Count of Chambord, refused to fly the tri-colored flag.[157] The turn of the century saw the rise of Action Française – an ultraconservative, reactionary, nationalist, and royalist movement that advocated the restoration of the monarchy.[158]

Religious tensions between Christian rightists and secular leftists heightened in the 1890–1910 era, but moderated after the spirit of unity in fighting World War I.[159] An authoritarian form of conservatism characterized the Vichy regime of 1940–1944 with heightened antisemitism, opposition to individualism, emphasis on family life, and national direction of the economy.[160]

Conservatism has been the major political force in France since World War II, although the number of conservative groups and their lack of stability defy simple categorization.[161] Following the war, conservatives supported Gaullist groups and parties, espoused nationalism, and emphasized tradition, social order, and the regeneration of France.[162] Unusually, post-war conservatism in France was formed around the personality of a leader—army officer Charles de Gaulle who led the Free French Forces against Nazi Germany—and it did not draw on traditional French conservatism, but on the Bonapartist tradition.[163] Gaullism in France continues under The Republicans (formerly Union for a Popular Movement), a party previously led by Nicolas Sarkozy, who served as President of France from 2007 to 2012 and whose ideology is known as Sarkozysm.[164]

In 2021, the French intellectual Éric Zemmour founded the nationalist party Reconquête, which has been described as a more elitist and conservative version of Marine Le Pen’s National Rally.[165]

Germany[edit]

Main article: Conservatism in Germany

This article is part of a series onConservatism in Germany

Ideologies

Agrarian

Christian democracy

Green

Liberal

Ordo

Ritter School

Nationalist

Neue Rechte

Völkisch

Paternalistic

State Socialism

Progressive

Revolutionary

Young

Romanticism

Hegelianism

Historical School

Principles

Christian values

Duty

Gemeinschaft

Heimat

In Treue fest

Kultur

Medievalism

Monarchism

Organicism

Patriotism

Prussian virtues

Sittlichkeit

Social hierarchy

Social market economy

Sonderweg

Subsidiarity

Traditional authority

Volksgeist

Intellectuals

von Galen

Gehlen

von Gerlach

Görres

Hegel

Jünger (Ernst)

Jünger (Friedrich)

Koselleck

Mann (early)

Möser

Moeller van den Bruck

Müller

Nolte

Novalis

von Ranke

Rauschning

Ritter (Gerhard)

Ritter (Joachim)

Röpke

Rüstow

von Savigny

Schlegel

Schmitt

Spaemann

Spengler

Stahl

Stoecker

Strauss

Tönnies

von Treitschke

Voegelin

Wackenroder

Works

Addresses to the German Nation (1806)

Elements of the Philosophy of Right (1820)

Lectures on the Philosophy of History (1837)

Reflections of a Nonpolitical Man (1918)

The Decline of the West (1918, 1922)

Prussianism and Socialism (1919)

The Concept of the Political (1932)

On the Marble Cliffs (1939)

Politicians

Adenauer

von Bismarck

Dregger

Fehrenbach

Filbinger

von Gerlach

Goerdeler

Hugenberg

Jung

Kohl

Merkel

Merz

von Papen

Rauschning

von Schleicher

Stresemann

vom Stein

von Storch

Strauss

Weidel

von Westarp

PartiesActive

Alternative for Germany

Christian Democratic Union of Germany

Christian Social Union in Bavaria

Centre Party

The Republicans

Defunct

Bavarian People's Party

Conservative Party

Free Conservative Party

German Conservative Party

German National People's Party

German People's Party

Organisations

Forum of German Catholics

Gerhard Löwenthal Prize

German Burschenschaft

Hanns Seidel Foundation

Hans Filbinger Foundation

Konrad Adenauer Foundation

Queen Louise League

Studienzentrum Weikersheim

Tradition und Leben

Media

Antaios

Bild

Cicero

Deutsche Rundschau

Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung

Junge Freiheit

Kreuzzeitung

Süddeutsche Monatshefte

Der Türmer

Die Welt

Related topics

Bibliothek des Konservatismus

Conservatism in Austria

Erklärung 2018

Freikorps

German Reich

German militarism

Historikerstreit

The Junkers

Liberalism in Germany

Monarchism in Bavaria after 1918

Pan-Germanism

Stahlhelm-Fraktion

Völkisch movement

Conservatism portal

Germany portalvte

Germany was the heart of the reactionary Romantic movement that swept Europe in the aftermath of the progressive Age of Enlightenment and its culmination in the anti-conservative French Revolution.[42] German Romanticism was deeply organicist and medievalist, finding expression philosophically among the Old Hegelians and judicially in the German historical school. Prominent conservative exponents were Friedrich Schlegel, Novalis, Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder, Friedrich Carl von Savigny, and Adam Müller.[166]

During the second half of the 19th century, German conservatism developed alongside nationalism, culminating in Germany's victory over France in the Franco-Prussian War, the creation of the unified German Empire in 1871, and the simultaneous rise of Otto von Bismarck on the European political stage. Bismarck's "balance of power" model maintained peace in Europe for decades at the end of the 19th century. His "revolutionary conservatism" was a conservative state-building strategy, based on class collaboration and designed to make ordinary Germans—not just the Junker aristocracy—more loyal to state and Emperor.[6] He created the modern welfare state in Germany in the 1880s.[167] According to scholars, his strategy was: granting social rights to enhance the integration of a hierarchical society, to forge a bond between workers and the state so as to strengthen the latter, to maintain traditional relations of authority between social and status groups, and to provide a countervailing power against the modernist forces of liberalism and socialism.[168]

Bismarck also enacted universal manhood suffrage in the new German Empire in 1871.[169] He became a great hero to German conservatives, who erected many monuments to his memory after he left office in 1890.[170]

During the interwar period—after Germany’s defeat in World War I, the abdication of Emperor Wilhelm II, and the introduction of parliamentary democracy—German conservatives experienced a cultural crisis and felt uprooted by a progressively modernist world.[171] This angst was expressed philosophically in the Conservative Revolution movement with prominent exponents such as historian Oswald Spengler, jurist Carl Schmitt, and author Ernst Jünger.[172] The major conservative party of this era was the reactionary German National People’s Party, who advocated a restored monarchy.[173]

With the rise of Nazism in 1933, traditional agrarian movements faded and were supplanted by a more command-based economy and forced social integration. Adolf Hitler succeeded in garnering the support of many German industrialists; but prominent traditionalists, including military officers Claus von Stauffenberg and Henning von Tresckow, pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Bishop Clemens August Graf von Galen, and monarchist Carl Friedrich Goerdeler, openly and secretly opposed his policies of euthanasia, genocide, and attacks on organized religion.[174]

More recently, the work of conservative Christian Democratic Union leader and Chancellor Helmut Kohl helped bring about German reunification, along with the closer European integration in the form of the Maastricht Treaty. Today, German conservatism is often associated with politicians such as Chancellor Angela Merkel, whose tenure was marked by attempts to save the common European currency (Euro) from demise. The German conservatives were divided under Merkel due to the refugee crisis in Germany, and many conservatives in the CDU/CSU opposed the immigration policies developed under Merkel.[175] The 2020s also saw the rise of the right-wing populist Alternative for Germany.

Greece[edit]

This article is part of a series onConservatism in Greece

Principles

Authority

Christian values

Family values

Greek nationalism

Metaxism

Monarchism

Private property

Social market economy

Social order

Protectionism

Tradition

Intellectuals

Elytis

Tsatsos

Vlachos

Politicians

Averoff

Dragoumis

Gounaris

Kalogeropoulos

Kanellopoulos

Karamanlis

Kapodistrias

Koumoundouros

Metaxas

Papagos

Protopapadakis

Rallis (Dimitrios)

Rallis (Georgios)

Samaras

Stefanopoulos

Stephanopoulos

Tsaldari

Tsaldaris (Konstantinos)

Tsaldaris (Panagis)

Tsatsos

PartiesActive

Democratic Revival

Greek Solution

Independent Greeks

National Hope

National Unity Association

New Democracy

Popular Orthodox Rally

Defunct

Democratic Renewal

Freethinkers' Party

Greek Rally

Napist Party

National Radical Union

People's Party

Political Spring

Popular Social Party

Union of Populars

Organisations

Panhellenic Liberation Organization

Media

Estia

Kathimerini

History

4th of August Regime

Greek Civil War

Greek economic miracle

Greek language question

Greek monarchy referendum, 1935

Greek referendum, 1946

Greek Resistance

Leonardopoulos–Gargalidis coup d'état attempt

Metapolitefsi

National Schism

Conservatism portal

Greece portalvte

The main inter-war conservative party was called the People's Party (PP), which supported constitutional monarchy and opposed the republican Liberal Party. Both parties were suppressed by the authoritarian, arch-conservative, and royalist 4th of August Regime of Ioannis Metaxas in 1936–1941. The PP was able to re-group after the Second World War as part of a United Nationalist Front which achieved power campaigning on a simple anti-communist, nationalist platform during the Greek Civil War (1946–1949). However, the vote received by the PP declined during the so-called "Centrist Interlude" in 1950–1952.

In 1952, Marshal Alexandros Papagos created the Greek Rally as an umbrella for the right-wing forces. The Greek Rally came to power in 1952 and remained the leading party in Greece until 1963. After Papagos' death in 1955, it was reformed as the National Radical Union under Konstantinos Karamanlis. Right-wing governments backed by the palace and the army overthrew the Centre Union government in 1965 and governed the country until the establishment of the far-right Greek junta (1967–1974). After the regime's collapse in August 1974, Karamanlis returned from exile to lead the government and founded the New Democracy party. The new conservative party had four objectives: to confront Turkish expansionism in Cyprus, to reestablish and solidify democratic rule, to give the country a strong government, and to make a powerful moderate party a force in Greek politics.[176]

The Independent Greeks, a newly formed political party in Greece, has also supported conservatism, particularly national and religious conservatism. The Founding Declaration of the Independent Greeks strongly emphasises in the preservation of the Greek state and its sovereignty, the Greek people, and the Greek Orthodox Church.[177]

Iceland[edit]

Founded in 1924 as the Conservative Party, Iceland's Independence Party adopted its current name in 1929 after the merger with the Liberal Party. From the beginning, they have been the largest vote-winning party, averaging around 40%. They combined liberalism and conservatism, supported nationalization of infrastructure, and advocated class collaboration. While mostly in opposition during the 1930s, they embraced economic liberalism, but accepted the welfare state after the war and participated in governments supportive of state intervention and protectionism. Unlike other Scandanivian conservative (and liberal) parties, it has always had a large working-class following.[178] After the financial crisis in 2008, the party has sunk to a lower support level at around 20–25%.

Italy[edit]

This article is part of a series onConservatism in Italy

Ideologies

Berlusconism

Historical Right

Italian nationalism

Italian school of elitism

Liberal conservatism

Liberismo

Populism

Sanfedismo

Principles

Agrarianism

Anti-communism

Catholic social teaching

Christian democracy

Christian values

Clericalism

Familialism

Maternalism

Monarchism

Patriotism

Political Catholicism

Property rights

Subsidiarity

Ultramontanism

Intellectuals

Bresciani

Cuoco

Evola

Giubilei

Leopardi

Longanesi

Maistre

Margotti

Montanelli

Mosca

Papini

Pareto

Pera

Salandra

Sogno

Taparelli

Politicians

Andreotti

Berlusconi

De Gasperi

Fini

Meloni

Pera

Salandra

Salvini

Sogno

Tatarella

PartiesActive

Brothers of Italy

Coraggio Italia

Future and Freedom

Identity and Action

Lega

Monarchist Alliance

Lega Nord

Us with Italy

Defunct

Common Man's Front

Conservatives and Reformists

Direction Italy

Forza Italia

Italian Democratic Party of Monarchist Unity

Italian Nationalist Association

Liberal Constitutional Party

Monarchist National Party

New Centre-Right

The People of Freedom

People's Monarchist Party

Organisations

Machiavelli Center for Political and Strategic Studies

Media

Annabella

L'Armonia

Il Borghese

Candido

Corriere della Sera (formerly)

Epoca

Il Foglio

Il Giornale

L'Italia settimanale

Libero

La Verità

Related topics

1946 Italian institutional referendum

Italian fascism

Kingdom of Italy

Revolt Against the Modern World

Conservatism portal

Italy portalvte

After unification, Italy was governed successively by the Historical Right, which represented conservative, liberal-conservative, and conservative-liberal positions, and the Historical Left.

After World War I, the country saw the emergence of its first mass parties, notably including the Italian People's Party (PPI), a Christian-democratic party that sought to represent the Catholic majority, which had long refrained from politics. The PPI and the Italian Socialist Party decisively contributed to the loss of strength and authority of the old liberal ruling class, which had not been able to structure itself into a proper party: the Liberal Union was not coherent and the Italian Liberal Party came too late.

In 1921, Benito Mussolini founded the National Fascist Party (PNF), and the next year, through the March on Rome, he was appointed Prime Minister by King Victor Emmanuel III. Fascism originated as a populist, revolutionary, anti-royalist, anti-clerical, and anti-conservative ideology, initially viewed by many socialists as a leftist heresy rather than a rightist opponent; but it became distinctly right-wing when it made compromises with the conservative establishment in order to consolidate authority and suppress communist movements.[179][180] In 1926, all parties were dissolved except the PNF, which thus remained the only legal party in the Kingdom of Italy until the fall of the regime in July 1943. By 1945, fascists were discredited, disbanded, and outlawed, while Mussolini was executed in April that year.[181]

In 1946, a referendum was held concerning the fate of the monarchy. While southern Italy and parts of northern Italy were royalist, other parts, especially in central Italy, were predominantly republican. The outcome was 54–46% in favour of a republic, leading to a collapse of the monarchy.[182]

After World War II, the centre-right was dominated by the centrist party Christian Democracy (DC), which included both conservative and centre-left elements. With its landslide victory over the Italian Socialist Party and the Italian Communist Party in 1948, the political centre was in power. In Denis Mack Smith's words, it was "moderately conservative, reasonably tolerant of everything which did not touch religion or property, but above all Catholic and sometimes clerical". It dominated politics until DC's dissolution in 1994.[183][184] Among DC's frequent allies, there was the conservative-liberal Italian Liberal Party. At the right of the DC stood parties like the royalist Monarchist National Party and the post-fascist Italian Social Movement.

In 1994, entrepreneur and media tycoon Silvio Berlusconi founded the liberal-conservative party Forza Italia (FI). He won three elections in 1994, 2001, and 2008, governing the country for almost ten years as Prime Minister. FI formed a coalitions with several parties, including the national-conservative National Alliance (AN), heir of the MSI, and the regionalist Lega Nord (LN). FI was briefly incorporated, along with AN, in The People of Freedom party and later revived in the new Forza Italia.[185] After the 2018 general election, the LN and the Five Star Movement formed a populist government, which lasted about a year.[186] In the 2022 general election, a centre-right coalition came to power, this time dominated by Brothers of Italy (FdI), a new national-conservative party born on the ashes of AN. Consequently, FdI, the re-branded Lega, and FI formed a government under FdI leader Giorgia Meloni.

Luxembourg[edit]

Luxembourg's major conservative party, the Christian Social People's Party, was formed as the Party of the Right in 1914 and adopted its present name in 1945. It was consistently the largest political party in Luxembourg and dominated politics throughout the 20th century.[187]

Netherlands[edit]

Liberalism has been strong in the Netherlands. Thus, rightist parties are often liberal-conservative or conservative-liberal. One example of this is the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy. Even the right-wing populist Party for Freedom, which dominated the 2023 election, supports liberal positions such as women's and gay rights, abortion, and euthanasia.[188]

Norway[edit]

The Conservative Party of Norway (Norwegian: Høyre, literally "Right") was formed by the old upper-class of state officials and wealthy merchants to fight the populist democracy of the Liberal Party, but it lost power in 1884, when parliamentarian government was first practiced. It formed its first government under parliamentarism in 1889 and continued to alternate in power with the Liberals until the 1930s, when Labour became the dominant party. It has elements both of paternalism, stressing the responsibilities of the state, and of economic liberalism. It first returned to power in the 1960s.[189] During Kåre Willoch's premiership in the 1980s, much emphasis was laid on liberalizing the credit and housing market and abolishing the NRK TV and radio monopoly, while supporting law and order in criminal justice and traditional norms in education.[190]

Russia[edit]

Main article: Conservatism in Russia

This article is part of a series onConservatism in Russia

Ideologies

Eurasianism

Duginism

Monarchism

Black-hundredism

Tsarism

Populism

Putinism

Russian nationalism

All-Russian

Christian

Slavophilia

Pochvennichestvo

Principles

Authority

Autocracy

Duty

Economic interventionism

Family values

Imperialism

Irredentism

Law and order

Orthodox values

Nuclear Orthodoxy

Patriotism

Reactionism

Social hierarchy

Social order

Sovereign democracy

Statism

Traditionalism

Ultranationalism

Intellectuals

Aksakov

Dostoevsky

Dugin

Frank

Ilyin

Karamzin

Katkov

Leontiev

Pobedonostsev

Prokhanov

Rozanov

Semyonov

Shafarevich

Shcherbatov

Solzhenitsyn

Strakhov

Surkov

Tikhomirov

Tikhon

Uvarov

Vikulov

Zhukovsky

Politicians

Alexander III

Butina

Dubrovin

Durnovo

Gryzlov

Kolchak

Kornilov

Luzhkov

Malyshkin

Mizulina

Nicholas I

Nicholas II

Pikhno

Pobedonostsev

Putin

Rodzianko

Rogozin

Rostopchin

Shulgin

Slutsky

Surkov

Tolstoy

von Ungern

Uvarov

Vladimir

Volodin

Zhirinovsky

PartiesActive

Eurasia Party

Great Russia

Liberal Democratic Party of Russia

Rodina

Russian All-People's Union

Union of Right Forces

United Russia

Defunct

For Truth

Liberal Democratic Party of the Soviet Union

People's Union

Pamyat Society

Union of the Russian People

Organisations

All-Russia People's Front

Izborsky Club

Media

Kievlyanin

Kozma Minin

Nash Sovremennik

Russkoye Znamya

Zavtra

Znamya

Related topics

Culture of Russia

Great Russia

Neo-Sovietism

Nostalgia for the Soviet Union

Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality

Russia for Russians

Russia under Vladimir Putin

White movement

Conservatism portal

Russia portalvte

Under Vladimir Putin, the dominant leader since 1999, Russia has promoted explicitly conservative policies in social, cultural, and political matters, both at home and abroad.[191] Putin has criticized globalism and economic liberalism, claiming that "liberalism has become obsolete" and that the vast majority of people in the world oppose multiculturalism, free immigration, and rights for LGBT people.[192] Russian conservatism is special in some respects as it supports a mixed economy with economic intervention, combined with a strong nationalist sentiment and social conservatism which is largely populist. As a result, Russian conservatism opposes right-libertarian ideals such as the aforementioned concept of economic liberalism found in other conservative movements around the world.

Putin has also promoted new think tanks that bring together like-minded intellectuals and writers. For example, the Izborsky Club, founded in 2012 by Alexander Prokhanov, stresses Russian nationalism, the restoration of Russia's historical greatness, and systematic opposition to liberal ideas and policies.[193] Vladislav Surkov, a senior government official, has been one of the key ideologues during Putin's presidency.[194]

In cultural and social affairs, Putin has collaborated closely with the Russian Orthodox Church. Under Patriarch Kirill of Moscow, the Church has backed the expansion of Russian power into Crimea and eastern Ukraine.[195] More broadly, The New York Times reports in September 2016 how the Church's policy prescriptions support the Kremlin's appeal to social conservatives:

"A fervent foe of homosexuality and any attempt to put individual rights above those of family, community, or nation, the Russian Orthodox Church helps project Russia as the natural ally of all those who pine for a more secure, illiberal world free from the tradition-crushing rush of globalization, multiculturalism, and women's and gay rights."[196]

Sweden[edit]

This article is part of a series onConservatism in Sweden

Principles

Duty

Elitism

Meritocracy

Law and order

Liberal conservatism

Ordered liberty

Moderate conservatism

Monarchism

National conservatism

Folkhemmet

National romanticism

Patriotism

Property rights

Rule of law

Social order

State church

Tradition

Intellectuals

Ahlberg

Arnstberg

Boström

Böök

Geijer

Heckscher (Eli)

Heckscher (Gunnar)

Heberlein

Heidenstam

Hjärne

Karlsson

Kjellén

Martinsson

Nordin

Lindbom

Pethrus

Ryn

Stolpe

Tegnér

Teodorescu

Zetterberg

Politicians

Bildt

Bohman

Busch

Hägglund

Järta

Karlsson

Kasselstrand

Kjellén

Krönmark

Lindman

Lundeberg

Pethrus

Trygger

Wallmark

Weimers

Åkesson

PartiesContemporary

Alternative for Sweden

Christian Democrats

Citizens' Coalition

Moderate Party

Sweden Democrats

Former

Centre Party

Lantmanna Party

National Party

New Democracy

Protectionist Party

Organisations

Captus

Jarl Hjalmarson Foundation

Oikos

Young Christian Democrats

Young Swedes SDU

MediaActive

Axess magasin

Barometern

Bulletin

Det Bästa

Gotlands Allehanda

Nya Wermlands-Tidningen

Nyheter Idag

Riks

Smålandsposten

Svenska Dagbladet

Former

Det Nya Sverige

Nya Dagligt Allehanda

OBS!

Salt

Stockholms Dagblad

History

Hats

Peasant armament support march

Courtyard Speech

Swedish Empire

Swedish Romanticism

Gothicism

Related topics

Swedish Bible Belt

Kristersson cabinet

Tidö Agreement

Conservatism portal

Sweden portalvte

In the early 19th century, Swedish conservatism developed alongside Swedish Romanticism. The historian Erik Gustaf Geijer, an exponent of Gothicism, glorified the Viking Age and the Swedish Empire,[197] and the idealist philosopher Christopher Jacob Boström became the chief ideologue of the official state doctrine, which dominated Swedish politics for almost a century.[198] Other influential Swedish conservative Romantics were Esaias Tegnér and Per Daniel Amadeus Atterbom.

Early parliamentary conservatism in Sweden was explicitly elitist. Indeed, the Conservative Party was formed in 1904 with one major goal in mind: to stop the advent of universal suffrage, which they feared would result in socialism. Yet, it was a Swedish admiral, the conservative politician Arvid Lindman, who first extended democracy by enacting male suffrage, despite the protests of more traditionalist voices, such as the later Prime Minister, the arch-conservative and authoritarian statesman Ernst Trygger, who railed at progressive policies such as the abolition of the death penalty.[199]

Once a democratic system was in place, Swedish conservatives sought to combine traditional elitism with modern populism. Sweden’s most renowned political scientist, the conservative politician Rudolf Kjellén, coined the terms geopolitics and biopolitics in relation to his organic theory of the state.[200] He also developed the corporatist-nationalist concept of Folkhemmet (’the home of the people’), which became the single most powerful political concept in Sweden throughout the 20th century, although it was adopted by the Social Democratic Party who gave it a more socialist interpretation.[201]

After a brief grand coalition between Left and Right during World War II, the centre-right parties struggled to cooperate due to their ideological differences: the agrarian populism of the Centre Party, the urban liberalism of the Liberal People’s Party, and the liberal-conservative elitism of the Moderate Party (the old Conservative Party). However, in 1976 and in 1979, the three parties managed to form a government under Thorbjörn Fälldin—and again in 1991, this time under aristocrat Carl Bildt and with support from the newly founded Christian Democrats, the most conservative party in contemporary Sweden.[202]

In modern times, mass immigration from distant cultures caused a large populist dissatisfaction, which was not channeled through any of the established parties, who generally espoused multiculturalism.[203] Instead, the 2010s saw the rise of the right-wing populist Sweden Democrats, who were surging as the largest party in the polls on several occasions.[204][205] The party was ostracized by the other parties until 2019, when Christian Democrat leader Ebba Busch reached out for collaboration, after which the Moderate Party followed suit.[206] In 2022, the centre-right parties formed a government with support from the Sweden Democrats as the biggest party.[207] The subsequent Tidö Agreement, negotiated in Tidö Castle, incorporated authoritarian policies such as a stricter stance on immigration and a harsher stance on law and order.[208]

Switzerland[edit]

This article is part of a series onConservatism in Switzerland

Principles

Agrarianism

Capitalism

Economic liberalism

Federalism

Liberty

Limited government

Multiculturalism

Populism

Property rights

Republicanism

Subsidiarity

Swiss neutrality

Intellectuals

Burckhardt

von Haller

Mohler

Schuon

Politicians

Blocher

Furgler

Gnägi

Maurer

von Moos

Widmer-Schlumpf

Parties

Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland

Conservative Democratic Party of Switzerland

Evangelical People's Party of Switzerland

Federal Democratic Union of Switzerland

Freedom Party of Switzerland

Party of Farmers, Traders and Independents

Swiss People's Party

Organisations

AUNS

Pro Libertate

Media

Die Weltwoche

Neue Zürcher Zeitung

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Culture of Switzerland

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Politics of Switzerland

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In some aspects, Swiss conservatism is unique, as Switzerland is an old federal republic born from historically sovereign cantons, comprising three major nationalities, and adhering to the principle of Swiss neutrality.

There are a number of conservative parties in Switzerland's parliament, the Federal Assembly. These include the largest ones: the Swiss People's Party (SVP),[209] the Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP),[210] and the Conservative Democratic Party of Switzerland (BDP),[211] which is a splinter of the SVP created in the aftermath to the election of Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf as Federal Council.[211]

The SVP was formed from the 1971 merger of the Party of Farmers, Traders and Citizens, formed in 1917, and the smaller Democratic Party, formed in 1942. The SVP emphasized agricultural policy and was strong among farmers in German-speaking Protestant areas. As Switzerland considered closer relations with the European Union in the 1990s, the SVP adopted a more militant protectionist and isolationist stance. This stance has allowed it to expand into German-speaking Catholic mountainous areas.[212] The Anti-Defamation League, a non-Swiss lobby group based in the United States has accused them of manipulating issues such as immigration, Swiss neutrality, and welfare benefits, awakening antisemitism and racism.[213] The Council of Europe has called the SVP "extreme right", although some scholars dispute this classification. For instance, Hans-Georg Betz describes it as "populist radical right".[214] The SVP has been the largest party since 2003.

Ukraine[edit]

The authoritarian Ukrainian State was headed by Cossack aristocrat Pavlo Skoropadskyi and represented the conservative movement. The 1918 Hetman government, which appealed to the tradition of the 17th–18th century Cossack Hetman state, represented the conservative strand in Ukraine's struggle for independence. It had the support of the proprietary classes and of conservative and moderate political groups. Vyacheslav Lypynsky was a main ideologue of Ukrainian conservatism.[215]

United Kingdom[edit]

Main article: Conservatism in the United Kingdom

This article is part of a series onConservatismin the United Kingdom

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The Left Was Never Right (1945)

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How to Be a Conservative (2014)

Conservatism: An Invitation to the Great Tradition (2017)

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Part of the Politics series onToryism

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vte

Modern English conservatives celebrate Anglo-Irish statesman Edmund Burke as their intellectual father. Burke was affiliated with the Whig Party, which eventually split amongst the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party, but the modern Conservative Party is generally thought to derive primarily from the Tories, and the MPs of the modern conservative party are still frequently referred to as Tories.[216]

Shortly after Burke's death in 1797, conservatism was revived as a mainstream political force as the Whigs suffered a series of internal divisions. This new generation of conservatives derived their politics not from Burke, but from his predecessor, the Viscount Bolingbroke (1678–1751), who was a Jacobite and traditional Tory, lacking Burke's sympathies for Whiggish policies such as Catholic emancipation and American independence (famously attacked by Samuel Johnson in "Taxation No Tyranny").[216]

In the first half of the 19th century, many newspapers, magazines, and journals promoted loyalist or right-wing attitudes in religion, politics, and international affairs. Burke was seldom mentioned, but William Pitt the Younger (1759–1806) became a conspicuous hero. The most prominent journals included The Quarterly Review, founded in 1809 as a counterweight to the Whigs' Edinburgh Review, and the even more conservative Blackwood's Magazine. The Quarterly Review promoted a balanced Canningite Toryism, as it was neutral on Catholic emancipation and only mildly critical of Nonconformist dissent; it opposed slavery and supported the current poor laws; and it was "aggressively imperialist". The high-church clergy of the Church of England read the Orthodox Churchman's Magazine, which was equally hostile to Jewish, Catholic, Jacobin, Methodist and Unitarian spokesmen. Anchoring the ultra-Tories, Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine stood firmly against Catholic emancipation and favoured slavery, cheap money, mercantilism, the Navigation Acts, and the Holy Alliance.[216]

Conservatism evolved after 1820, embracing free trade in 1846 and a commitment to democracy, especially under Benjamin Disraeli. The effect was to significantly strengthen conservatism as a grassroots political force. Conservatism no longer was the philosophical defense of the landed aristocracy, but had been refreshed into redefining its commitment to the ideals of order, both secular and religious, expanding imperialism, strengthened monarchy, and a more generous vision of the welfare state as opposed to the punitive vision of the Whigs and liberals.[217] As early as 1835, Disraeli attacked the Whigs and utilitarians as slavishly devoted to an industrial oligarchy, while he described his fellow Tories as the only "really democratic party of England", devoted to the interests of the whole people.[218] Nevertheless, inside the party there was a tension between the growing numbers of wealthy businessmen on the one side and the aristocracy and rural gentry on the other.[219] The aristocracy gained strength as businessmen discovered they could use their wealth to buy a peerage and a country estate.

Some conservatives lamented the passing of a pastoral world where the ethos of noblesse oblige had promoted respect from the lower classes. They saw the Anglican Church and the aristocracy as balances against commercial wealth.[220] They worked toward legislation for improved working conditions and urban housing.[221] This viewpoint would later be called Tory democracy.[222] However, since Burke, there has always been tension between traditional aristocratic conservatism and the wealthy liberal business class.[223]

In 1834, Tory Prime Minister Robert Peel issued the "Tamworth Manifesto", in which he pledged to endorse moderate political reform. This marked the beginning of the transformation from High Tory reactionism towards a more modern form of conservatism. As a result, the party became known as the Conservative Party—a name it has retained to this day. However, Peel would also be the root of a split in the party between the traditional Tories (by the Earl of Derby and Benjamin Disraeli) and the "Peelites" (led first by Peel himself, then by the Earl of Aberdeen). The split occurred in 1846 over the issue of free trade, which Peel supported, versus protectionism, supported by Derby. The majority of the party sided with Derby whilst about a third split away, eventually merging with the Whigs and the radicals to form the Liberal Party. Despite the split, the mainstream Conservative Party accepted the doctrine of free trade in 1852.

In the second half of the 19th century, the Liberal Party faced political schisms, especially over Irish Home Rule. Leader William Gladstone (himself a former Peelite) sought to give Ireland a degree of autonomy, a move that elements in both the left and right-wings of his party opposed. These split off to become the Liberal Unionists (led by Joseph Chamberlain), forming a coalition with the Conservatives before merging with them in 1912. The Liberal Unionist influence dragged the Conservative Party towards the left as Conservative governments passed a number of progressive reforms at the turn of the 20th century. By the late 19th century, the traditional business supporters of the Liberal Party had joined the Conservatives, making them the party of business and commerce as well.

After a period of Liberal dominance before the First World War, the Conservatives gradually became more influential in government, regaining full control of the cabinet in 1922. In the inter-war period, conservatism was the major ideology in Britain[224][225][226] as the Liberal Party vied with the Labour Party for control of the left. After the Second World War, the first Labour government (1945–1951) under Clement Attlee embarked on a program of nationalization of industry and the promotion of social welfare. The Conservatives generally accepted those policies until the 1980s.

In the 1980s, the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher, guided by neoliberal economics, reversed many of Labour's social programmes, privatised large parts of the UK economy, and sold state-owned assets.[227] The Conservative Party also adopted soft eurosceptic politics and opposed Federal Europe. Other conservative political parties, such as the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP, founded in 1971), and the United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP, founded in 1993), began to appear, although they have yet to make any significant impact at Westminster. As of 2014, the DUP is the largest political party in the ruling coalition in the Northern Ireland Assembly), and from 2017–2019 the DUP provided support for the Conservative minority government under a confidence-and-supply arrangement.

Latin America[edit]

Main article: Conservatism in Latin America

Conservative elites have long dominated Latin American nations. Mostly, this has been achieved through control of civil institutions, the Catholic Church, and the military, rather than through party politics. Typically, the Church was exempt from taxes and its employees immune from civil prosecution. Where conservative parties were weak or non-existent, conservatives were more likely to rely on military dictatorship as a preferred form of government.

However, in some nations where the elites were able to mobilize popular support for conservative parties, longer periods of political stability were achieved. Chile, Colombia, and Venezuela are examples of nations that developed strong conservative parties. Argentina, Brazil, El Salvador, and Peru are examples of nations where this did not occur.[228]

Louis Hartz explained conservatism in Latin American nations as a result of their settlement as feudal societies.[229]

Brazil[edit]

Main article: Conservatism in Brazil

This article is part of a series onConservatism in Brazil

Ideologies

Bolsonarism

Coronelism

Integralism

Janismo

Monarchism

Patrianovism

Nationalism

Populism

Principles

Agrarianism

Anti-communism

Authority

Catholicism

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Campos

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Carvalho

Corção

Corrêa de Oliveira

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Freyre

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Pinto

Reale

Rodríguez

dos Santos

Silva

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Politicians

Andrada e Silva

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Maluf

Nabuco

dos Santos

Winter

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PartiesActive

Brazil Union

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Democrats

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Patriota

Popular Representation Party

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Organisations

Evangelical Caucus

União Democrática Ruralista

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Gazeta do Povo

O Tempo

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Conservatism in Brazil originates from the cultural and historical tradition of Brazil, whose cultural roots are Luso-Iberian and Roman Catholic.[230] More traditional conservative historical views and features include belief in political federalism and monarchism.

The military dictatorship in Brazil was established on 1 April 1964, after a coup d'état by the Brazilian Army with support from the United States government, and it lasted for 21 years, until 15 March 1985. The coup received support from almost all high-ranking members of the military along with conservative sectors in society, such as the Catholic Church and anti-communist civilian movements among the Brazilian middle and upper classes. The dictatorship reached the height of its popularity in the 1970s with the so-called Brazilian Miracle. Brazil's military government provided a model for other military regimes throughout Latin America, being systematized by the "National Security Doctrine", which was used to justify the military's actions as operating in the interest of national security in a time of crisis.[231]

In contemporary politics, a conservative wave began roughly around the 2014 Brazilian presidential election.[232] According to commentators, the National Congress of Brazil elected in 2014 may be considered the most conservative since the re-democratization movement, citing an increase in the number of parliamentarians linked to more conservative segments, such as ruralists, the military, the police, and religious conservatives. The subsequent economic crisis of 2015 and investigations of corruption scandals led to a right-wing movement that sought to rescue ideas from economic liberalism and conservatism in opposition to socialism. At the same time, fiscal conservatives such as those that make up the Free Brazil Movement emerged among many others. National-conservative candidate Jair Bolsonaro of the Social Liberal Party was the winner of the 2018 Brazilian presidential election.[233]

Chile[edit]

Chile's conservative party, the National Party, disbanded in 1973 following a military coup and did not re-emerge as a political force after the return to democracy.[234] During the military dictatorship of Chile, the country was ruled by a military junta headed by General Augusto Pinochet. His ideology, known as Pinochetism, was anti-communist, militaristic, nationalistic, and laissez-faire capitalistic.[235] Under Pinochet, Chile's economy was placed under the control of a group of economists known collectively as the Chicago Boys, whose liberalising policies have been described as neoliberal.[236]

Colombia[edit]

Main article: Conservatism in Colombia

The Colombian Conservative Party, founded in 1849, traces its origins to opponents of General Francisco de Paula Santander's 1833–1837 administration. While the term "liberal" had been used to describe all political forces in Colombia, the conservatives began describing themselves as "conservative liberals" and their opponents as "red liberals". From the 1860s until the present, the party has supported strong central government and the Catholic Church, especially its role as protector of the sanctity of the family, and opposed separation of church and state. Its policies include the legal equality of all men, the citizen's right to own property, and opposition to dictatorship. It has usually been Colombia's second largest party, with the Colombian Liberal Party being the largest.[237]

North America[edit]

Main article: Conservatism in North America

Canada[edit]

Main article: Conservatism in Canada

This article is part of a series onConservatism in Canada

Schools

Clerico-nationalism

Right-wing populism

Trumpism

Social conservatism

Social credit

Toryism

Blue

Red

Principles

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Black

Byfield

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Politicians

Bennett

Borden

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Duplessis

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Manning

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Commentators

Camp

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Extant partiesFederal

Christian Heritage Party of Canada

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Historical partiesFederal

Canadian Alliance

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Media

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Canada's conservatives had their roots in the Tory loyalists who left America after the American Revolution.[238] They developed in the socio-economic and political cleavages that existed during the first three decades of the 19th century and had the support of the mercantile, professional, and religious elites in Ontario and to a lesser extent in Quebec. Holding a monopoly over administrative and judicial offices, they were called the Family Compact in Ontario and the Chateau Clique in Quebec. John A. Macdonald's successful leadership of the movement to confederate the provinces and his subsequent tenure as prime minister for most of the late 19th century rested on his ability to bring together the English-speaking Protestant aristocracy and the ultramontane Catholic hierarchy of Quebec and to keep them united in a conservative coalition.[239]

The conservatives combined pro-market liberalism and Toryism. They generally supported an activist government and state intervention in the marketplace, and their policies were marked by noblesse oblige, a paternalistic responsibility of the elites for the less well-off.[240] The party was known as the Progressive Conservatives from 1942 until 2003, when the party merged with the Canadian Alliance to form the Conservative Party of Canada.[241]

The conservative and autonomist Union Nationale, led by Maurice Duplessis, governed the province of Quebec in periods from 1936 to 1960 and in a close alliance with the Catholic Church, small rural elites, farmers, and business elites. This period, known by liberals as the Great Darkness, ended with the Quiet Revolution and the party went into terminal decline.[242]

By the end of the 1960s, the political debate in Quebec centered around the question of independence, opposing the social democratic and sovereignist Parti Québécois and the centrist and federalist Quebec Liberal Party, therefore marginalizing the conservative movement. Most French Canadian conservatives rallied either the Quebec Liberal Party or the Parti Québécois, while some of them still tried to offer an autonomist third-way with what was left of the Union Nationale or the more populists Ralliement créditiste du Québec and Parti national populaire, but by the 1981 provincial election politically organized conservatism had been obliterated in Quebec. It slowly started to revive at the 1994 provincial election with the Action démocratique du Québec, who served as Official opposition in the National Assembly from 2007 to 2008, before merging in 2012 with François Legault's Coalition Avenir Québec, which took power in 2018. The modern Conservative Party of Canada has rebranded conservatism and, under the leadership of Stephen Harper, added more conservative policies.

Yoram Hazony, a scholar on the history and ideology of conservatism, identified Canadian psychologist Jordan Peterson as the most significant conservative thinker to appear in the English-speaking world in a generation.[243]

United States[edit]

Main article: Conservatism in the United States

This article is part of a series onConservatismin the United States

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Reed

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Schlafly (Phyllis)

Shapiro

Thiel

Washington

Weyrich

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Works

Democracy and Leadership (1924)

Our Enemy, the State (1935)

Ideas Have Consequences (1948)

God and Man at Yale (1951)

The Conservative Mind (1953)

The Conscience of a Conservative (1960)

A Choice Not an Echo (1964)

Roots of American Order (1974)

A Conflict of Visions (1987)

The Closing of the American Mind (1987)

A Republic, Not an Empire (1999)

Hillbilly Elegy (2017)

The Benedict Option (2017)

The Right Side of History (2019)

PartiesActive

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Conservatism portal

United States portalvte

The meaning of conservatism in the United States is different from the way the word is used elsewhere. As historian Leo P. Ribuffo notes, "what Americans now call conservatism much of the world calls liberalism or neoliberalism".[66] However, the prominent American conservative writer Russell Kirk, in his influential work The Conservative Mind (1953), argued that conservatism had been brought to the United States and he interpreted the American Revolution as a "conservative revolution" against royalist innovation.[244]

American conservatism is a broad system of political beliefs in the United States, which is characterized by respect for American traditions, support for Judeo-Christian values, economic liberalism, anti-communism, and a defense of Western culture. Liberty within the bounds of conformity to conservatism is a core value, with a particular emphasis on strengthening the free market, limiting the size and scope of government, and opposing high taxes as well as government or labor union encroachment on the entrepreneur.

The 1830s Democratic Party became divided between Southern Democrats, who supported slavery, secession, and later segregation, and the Northern Democrats, who tended to support the abolition of slavery, union, and equality.[245] Many Democrats were conservative in the sense that they wanted things to be like they were in the past, especially as far as race was concerned. They generally favored poorer farmers and urban workers, and were hostile to banks, industrialization, and high tariffs.[246]

The post-Civil War Republican Party elected the first People of Color to serve in both local and national political office. The Southern Democrats united with pro-segregation Northern Republicans to form the Conservative Coalition, which successfully put an end to Blacks being elected to national political office until 1967, when Edward Brooke was elected Senator from Massachusetts.[247][248] Conservative Democrats influenced US politics until 1994's Republican Revolution, when the American South shifted from solid Democrat to solid Republican, while maintaining its conservative values.

In late 19th century, the Democratic Party split into two factions; the more conservative Eastern business faction (led by Grover Cleveland) favored gold, while the South and West (led by William Jennings Bryan) wanted more silver in order to raise prices for their crops. In 1892, Cleveland won the election on a conservative platform, which supported maintaining the gold standard, reducing tariffs, and taking a laissez-faire approach to government intervention. A severe nationwide depression ruined his plans. Many of his supporters in 1896 supported the Gold Democrats when liberal William Jennings Bryan won the nomination and campaigned for bimetalism, money backed by both gold and silver. The conservative wing nominated Alton B. Parker in 1904, but he got very few votes.[249][250]

The major conservative party in the United States today is the Republican Party, also known as the GOP (Grand Old Party). Modern American conservatives often consider individual liberty as the fundamental trait of democracy, as long as it conforms to conservative values, small government, deregulation of the government, economic liberalism, and free trade—which contrasts with modern American liberals, who generally place a greater value on social equality and social justice.[251][252] Other major priorities within American conservatism include support for the traditional family, law and order, the right to bear arms, Christian values, anti-communism, and a defense of "Western civilization from the challenges of modernist culture and totalitarian governments".[253] Economic conservatives and libertarians favor small government, low taxes, limited regulation, and free enterprise. Some social conservatives see traditional social values threatened by secularism; so, they support school prayer, and oppose abortion and homosexuality.[254] Neoconservatives want to expand American ideals throughout the world, and show a strong support for Israel.[255] Paleoconservatives oppose multiculturalism and press for restrictions on immigration.[256] Most US conservatives prefer Republicans over Democrats, and most factions favor a strong foreign policy and a strong military.

The conservative movement of the 1950s attempted to bring together the divergent conservative strands, stressing the need for unity to prevent the spread of "godless communism", which Reagan later labeled an "evil empire".[257][258] During the Reagan administration, conservatives also supported the so-called Reagan Doctrine, under which the US as part of a Cold War strategy provided military and other support to guerrilla insurgencies that were fighting governments identified as socialist or communist. The Reagan administration also adopted neoliberalism and Reaganomics (pejoratively referred to as trickle-down economics), resulting in the 1980s economic growth and trillion-dollar deficits. Other modern conservative positions include anti-environmentalism.[259] On average, American conservatives desire tougher foreign policies than liberals do.[260]

The Tea Party movement, founded in 2009, proved a large outlet for populist American conservative ideas. Their stated goals included rigorous adherence to the US constitution, lower taxes, and opposition to a growing role for the federal government in health care. Electorally, it was considered a key force in Republicans reclaiming control of the US House of Representatives in 2010.[261][262]

Oceania[edit]

Australia[edit]

Main article: Conservatism in Australia

This article is part of a series onConservatism in Australia

Principles

Agrarianism

Economic liberalism

Federalism

Free market

Free trade

Limited government

Loyalism

Monarchism

Nationalism

Property rights

Protectionism

Rule of law

Intellectuals

Blainey

Coleman

Donnelly

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Minogue

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Stove

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Allan

Barton

Callinan

Craven

Dawson

Finnis

Flint

Gleeson

Gibbs

Hayne

Heydon

Kiefel

Steward

Wood

Commentators

Akerman

Albrechtsen

Bolt

Credlin

Dean

Devine (Frank)

Devine (Miranda)

Hadley

Jones

Kenny

Kerr

McGuinness

Mundine

Murray

van Onselen

Price

Vanstone

Politicians

Abbott

Anderson

Barton

Bernardi

Bonner

Canavan

Petersen

Dutton

Fraser

Gorton

Hanson

Holt

Howard

Joyce

Katter

Lyons

Menzies

Morrison

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Newman

Perrottet

Price

Reid

Vanstone

PartiesActive

Australian Christians

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Shooters, Fishers and Farmers

Defunct

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The Liberal Party of Australia adheres to the principles of social conservatism and liberal conservatism.[263] It is liberal in the sense of economics. Commentators explain: "In America, 'liberal' means left-of-center, and it is a pejorative term when used by conservatives in adversarial political debate. In Australia, of course, the conservatives are in the Liberal Party."[264] The National Right is the most organised and reactionary of the three faction within the party.[265]

Other conservative parties are the National Party of Australia (a sister party of the Liberals), Family First Party, Democratic Labor Party, Shooters, Fishers and Farmers Party, Australian Conservatives, and the Katter's Australian Party.

The largest party in the country is the Australian Labor Party, and its dominant faction is Labor Right, a socially conservative element. Australia undertook significant economic reform under the Labor Party in the mid-1980s. Consequently, issues like protectionism, welfare reform, privatization, and deregulation are no longer debated in the political space as they are in Europe or North America.

Political scientist James Jupp writes that "[the] decline in English influences on Australian reformism and radicalism, and appropriation of the symbols of Empire by conservatives continued under the Liberal Party leadership of Sir Robert Menzies, which lasted until 1966".[266]

New Zealand[edit]

This article is part of a series onConservatism in New Zealand

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Historic conservatism in New Zealand traces its roots to the unorganised conservative opposition to the New Zealand Liberal Party in the late 19th century. In 1909 this ideological strand found a more organised expression in the Reform Party, a forerunner to the contemporary New Zealand National Party, which absorbed historic conservative elements.[267] The National Party, established in 1936, embodies a spectrum of tendencies, including conservative and liberal. Throughout its history, the party has oscillated between periods of conservative emphasis and liberal reform. Its stated values include "individual freedom and choice" and "limited government".[268]

In the 1980s and 1990s both the National Party and its main opposing party, the traditionally left-wing Labour Party, implemented free-market reforms.[269]

The New Zealand First party, which split from the National Party in 1993, espouses nationalist and conservative principles.[270]

Psychology[edit]

See also: Biology and political orientation

Conscientiousness[edit]

The Big Five Personality Model has applications in the study of political psychology. It has been found by several studies that individuals who score high in Conscientiousness (the quality of working hard and being careful) are more likely to possess a right-wing political identification.[271][272][273] On the opposite end of the spectrum, a strong correlation was identified between high scores in Openness to Experience and a left-leaning ideology.[271][274][275] Because conscientiousness is positively related to job performance,[276][277] a 2021 study found that conservative service workers earn higher ratings, evaluations, and tips than social liberal ones.[278]

Disgust sensitivity[edit]

A number of studies have found that disgust is tightly linked to political orientation. People who are highly sensitive to disgusting images are more likely to align with the political right and value traditional ideals of bodily and spiritual purity, tending to oppose, for example, abortion and gay marriage.[279][280][281][282]

Research in the field of evolutionary psychology has also found that people who are more disgust sensitive tend to favour their own in-group over out-groups. A proposed reason for this phenomenon is that people begin to associate outsiders with disease while associating health with people similar to themselves.[283] The higher one's disgust sensitivity is, the greater the tendency to make more conservative moral judgments. Disgust sensitivity is associated with moral hypervigilance, which means that people who have higher disgust sensitivity are more likely to think that suspects of a crime are guilty. They also tend to view them as evil, if found guilty, thus endorsing them to harsher punishment in the setting of a court.[284]

Authoritarianism[edit]

The right-wing authoritarian personality (RWA) is a personality type that describes somebody who is highly submissive to their authority figures, acts aggressively in the name of said authorities, and is conformist in thought and behaviour.[285] According to psychologist Bob Altemeyer, individuals who are politically conservative tend to rank high in RWA.[286] This finding was echoed by Theodor W. Adorno in The Authoritarian Personality (1950) based on the F-scale personality test.

A study done on Israeli and Palestinian students in Israel found that RWA scores of right-wing party supporters were significantly higher than those of left-wing party supporters.[287] However, a 2005 study by H. Michael Crowson and colleagues suggested a moderate gap between RWA and other conservative positions, stating that their "results indicated that conservatism is not synonymous with RWA".[288]

Ambiguity intolerance[edit]

In 1973, British psychologist Glenn Wilson published an influential book providing evidence that a general factor underlying conservative beliefs is "fear of uncertainty".[289] A meta-analysis of research literature by Jost, Glaser, Kruglanski, and Sulloway in 2003 found that many factors, such as intolerance of ambiguity and need for cognitive closure, contribute to the degree of one's political conservatism and its manifestations in decision-making.[290][291] A study by Kathleen Maclay stated that these traits "might be associated with such generally valued characteristics as personal commitment and unwavering loyalty". The research also suggested that while most people are resistant to change, social liberals are more tolerant of it.[292]

Social dominance orientation[edit]

Social dominance orientation (SDO) is a personality trait measuring an individual's support for social hierarchy and the extent to which they desire their in-group be superior to out-groups. Psychologist Felicia Pratto and her colleagues have found evidence to support the claim that a high SDO is strongly correlated with conservative views and opposition to social engineering to promote equality.[293] Pratto and her colleagues also found that high SDO scores were highly correlated with measures of prejudice.[citation needed]

However, David J. Schneider argued for a more complex relationships between the three factors, writing that "correlations between prejudice and political conservatism are reduced virtually to zero when controls for SDO are instituted, suggesting that the conservatism–prejudice link is caused by SDO".[294] Conservative political theorist Kenneth Minogue criticized Pratto's work, saying:

It is characteristic of the conservative temperament to value established identities, to praise habit and to respect prejudice, not because it is irrational, but because such things anchor the darting impulses of human beings in solidities of custom which we do not often begin to value until we are already losing them. Radicalism often generates youth movements, while conservatism is a condition found among the mature, who have discovered what it is in life they most value.[295]

A 1996 study by Pratto and her colleagues examined the topic of racism. Contrary to what these theorists predicted, correlations between conservatism and racism were strongest among the most educated individuals, and weakest among the least educated. They also found that the correlation between racism and conservatism could be accounted for by their mutual relationship with SDO.[296]

Happiness[edit]

In his book Gross National Happiness (2008), Arthur C. Brooks presents the finding that conservatives are roughly twice as happy as social liberals.[297] A 2008 study suggested that conservatives tend to be happier than social liberals because of their tendency to justify the current state of affairs and to remain unbothered by inequalities in society.[298] A 2012 study disputed this, demonstrating that conservatives expressed greater personal agency (e.g., personal control, responsibility), more positive outlook (e.g., optimism, self-worth), and more transcendent moral beliefs (e.g., greater religiosity, greater moral clarity).[299]

Prominent conservative politicians[edit]

William Pitt the Younger

John Adams

Klemens von Metternich

Otto von Bismarck

Benjamin Disraeli

Lord Salisbury

Stanley Baldwin

Engelbert Dollfuß

Ioannis Metaxas

Winston Churchill

Konrad Adenauer

Charles de Gaulle

Francisco Franco

Margaret Thatcher

Ronald Reagan

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Works

De Officiis (44 BC)

Oration on the Dignity of Man (1486)

A Vindication of Natural Society (1756)

Democracy in America (1835–1840)

Civilization and Its Discontents (1930)

The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction (1935)

The Second Sex (1949)

One-Dimensional Man (1964)

The Society of the Spectacle (1967)

The History of Sexuality (1976)

The Culture of Narcissism (1979)

A Conflict of Visions (1987)

The Closing of the American Mind (1987)

Gender Trouble (1990)

The Malaise of Modernity (1991)

Intellectuals and Society (2010)

See also

Agnotology

Axiology

Critical theory

Cultural criticism

Cultural pessimism

Ethics

Historism

Historicism

Humanities

Philosophy of culture

Philosophy of education

Philosophy of history

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conservative

2 ENTRIES FOUND:

conservative (adjective)

conservative (noun)

conservative

/kənˈsɚvətɪv/

adjective

conservative

/kənˈsɚvətɪv/

adjective

Britannica Dictionary definition of CONSERVATIVE

[more conservative; most conservative]

believing in the value of established and traditional practices in politics and society

relating to or supporting political conservatism

a conservative newspaper columnist

conservative politicians/policies

She is a liberal Democrat who married a conservative Republican.

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compare 1liberal

Conservative

of or relating to the conservative party in countries like the United Kingdom and Canada

Conservative voters/policies

the Conservative candidate

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[more conservative; most conservative]

not liking or accepting changes or new ideas

He had some pretty conservative [=traditional, conventional] ideas about the way life should be.

She's more conservative now than she was in college.

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[more conservative; most conservative]

— used to describe a guess, estimate, etc., that is probably lower than the actual amount will be

He gave me a conservative estimate of how much repairs will cost.

She predicts that the total cost will be around 500 dollars, and that's a conservative guess. [=the total cost will probably be higher than that]

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[more conservative; most conservative]

traditional in taste, style, or manners

Her taste in art is fairly conservative.

He is a conservative dresser.

a conservative suit

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[more conservative; most conservative]

not willing to take risks

a conservative investor

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Conservative

accepting and following many of the traditional beliefs and customs of a religion

Conservative Judaism

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— conservatively

adverb

The collection is conservatively valued at three million dollars.

He dresses conservatively.

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conservative

/kənˈsɚvətɪv/

noun

plural

conservatives

conservative

/kənˈsɚvətɪv/

noun

plural

conservatives

Britannica Dictionary definition of CONSERVATIVE

[count]

a person who believes in the value of established and traditional practices in politics and society

a person who is politically conservative

His message is being well received by conservatives.

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Conservative

a member or supporter of a conservative political party in countries like the United Kingdom and Canada

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CONSERVATIVE Definition & Usage Examples | Dictionary.com

GamesDaily CrosswordWord PuzzleWord FinderAll gamesFeaturedWord of the DaySynonym of the DayWord of the YearNew wordsLanguage storiesAll featuredPop cultureSlangEmojiMemesAcronymsGender and sexualityAll pop cultureWriting tipsGrammar Coach™Writing hubGrammar essentialsCommonly confusedAll writing tipsGamesFeaturedPop cultureWriting tipsconservative[ kuhn-sur-vuh-tiv ]show ipaSee synonyms for: conservativeconservativelyconservativeness on Thesaurus.comadjectivedisposed to preserve existing conditions, institutions, etc., or to restore traditional ones, and to limit change.cautiously moderate or purposefully low: a conservative estimate.traditional in style or manner; avoiding novelty or showiness: conservative suit.(often initial capital letter) of or relating to the Conservative party.(initial capital letter) of, relating to, or characteristic of Conservative Jews or Conservative Judaism.having the power or tendency to conserve or preserve.Mathematics. (of a vector or vector function) having curl equal to zero; irrotational; lamellar.See morenouna person who is conservative in principles, actions, habits, etc.a supporter of conservative political policies.(initial capital letter) a member of a conservative political party, especially the Conservative party in Great Britain.a preservative.See moreOrigin of conservative1First recorded in 1350–1400; from Late Latin conservātīvus, equivalent to Latin conservāt(us) (see conservation) + -īvus -ive; replacing Middle English conservatif, from Middle French, from Latin, as aboveOther words from conservativecon·serv·a·tive·ly, adverbcon·serv·a·tive·ness, nounan·ti·con·serv·a·tive, adjective, nounan·ti·con·serv·a·tive·ly, adverban·ti·con·serv·a·tive·ness, nounhalf-con·serv·a·tive, adjectivehalf-con·serv·a·tive·ly, adverbhy·per·con·serv·a·tive, adjective, nounhy·per·con·serv·a·tive·ly, adverbhy·per·con·serv·a·tive·ness, nounnon·con·ser·va·tive, adjective, nouno·ver·con·serv·a·tive, adjectiveo·ver·con·serv·a·tive·ly, adverbo·ver·con·serv·a·tive·ness, nounpseu·do·con·serv·a·tive, adjectivepseu·do·con·serv·a·tive·ly, adverbqua·si-con·serv·a·tive, adjectivequa·si-con·serv·a·tive·ly, adverbsem·i·con·serv·a·tive, adjectivesem·i·con·serv·a·tive·ly, adverbsu·per·con·serv·a·tive, adjectivesu·per·con·serv·a·tive·ly, adverbsu·per·con·serv·a·tive·ness, nounun·con·serv·a·tive, adjectiveun·con·serv·a·tive·ly, adverbun·con·serv·a·tive·ness, nounWords Nearby conservativeconservation of massconservation of momentumconservation of parityconservation statusconservatismconservativeConservative BaptistConservative JewConservative JudaismConservative partyconservatizeDictionary.com Unabridged

Based on the Random House Unabridged Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2024How to use conservative in a sentenceLiberals say things that are way out there, and conservatives say things that are sometimes way out there, or don’t have enough evidence.Pro-Trump youth group enlists teens in secretive campaign likened to a ‘troll farm,’ prompting rebuke by Facebook and Twitter | Isaac Stanley-Becker | September 15, 2020 | Washington PostDavid Graff, Senior Director, Trust & Safety at Google, said around the elections specifically but also around some other areas, Google is going to take a more conservative approach with what suggestions it shows in auto-complete.Google now uses BERT to match stories with fact checks | Barry Schwartz | September 10, 2020 | Search Engine LandThe thinking was the South Bronx was too conservative to elect an LGBTQ person…Not only did I win, but I won so decisively that it sent Ruben Diaz Sr.Ritchie Torres, set to be first out Afro-Latino in Congress, seeks big changes amid COVID | Chris Johnson | September 9, 2020 | Washington BladeWhat conservative parents who opposed this are arguing is to rewrite history and we are arguing to teach history as it happened.LGBTQ-inclusive curriculum laws take effect in N.J., Ill. | Philip Van Slooten | September 9, 2020 | Washington BladeIn fact, there’s scant evidence of systematic anti-right bias by social-media platforms, according to two analyses by The Economist and a third by a researcher at the conservative American Enterprise Institute.Why the most controversial US internet law is worth saving | Amy Nordrum | September 9, 2020 | MIT Technology ReviewPlus the GOP electorate has become more conservative since 2008.The Devil in Mike Huckabee | Dean Obeidallah | January 6, 2015 | THE DAILY BEASTThat Huckabee is mentioned in the same sentence with other aspiring conservative governors, especially Bobby Jindal, is laughable.Why This Liberal Hearts Huckabee | Sally Kohn | January 6, 2015 | THE DAILY BEASTA hundred ultra-wealthy liberal and conservative donors have taken over the political system.The 100 Rich People Who Run America | Mark McKinnon | January 5, 2015 | THE DAILY BEASTA colleague overheard two conservative Mass. lawmakers talking about what “the gays” could do.The Real Story Behind the Fight for Marriage Equality | E.J. Graff | December 30, 2014 | THE DAILY BEASTThe disbelief was evident in article after article, with one conservative site using “President Pinocchio” in its headline.Obama Is Right on Race. The Media Is Wrong. | Keli Goff | December 29, 2014 | THE DAILY BEASTThe conservative senate sent a deputation to Bonaparte, expressing their desire that he would accept the title of emperor.The Every Day Book of History and Chronology | Joel MunsellThe man called Shiv was driving Delancy's get-away car at a conservative pace so as not to excite suspicion.Hooded Detective, Volume III No. 2, January, 1942 | VariousWho was it but its founder, that led the conservative party through these successive stages of triumph?Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, No. CCCXXXIX. January, 1844. Vol. LV. | VariousIt was one of the conservative sheets, comic-less, reactionary Republican to the core.Hooded Detective, Volume III No. 2, January, 1942 | VariousIn politics he took the conservative side, but as regards music he was probably the most advanced radical in Moscow.The Life & Letters of Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky | Modeste TchaikovskySee More ExamplesBritish Dictionary definitions for conservative (1 of 2)conservative/ (kənˈsɜːvətɪv) /adjectivefavouring the preservation of established customs, values, etc, and opposing innovationof, characteristic of, or relating to conservatismtending to be moderate or cautious: a conservative estimateconventional in style or type: a conservative suitmed (of treatment) designed to alleviate symptoms: Compare radical (def. 4)physics a field of force, system, etc, in which the work done moving a body from one point to another is independent of the path taken between them: electrostatic fields of force are conservativeSee morenouna person who is reluctant to change or consider new ideas; conformista supporter or advocate of conservatismadjective, nouna less common word for preservativeDerived forms of conservativeconservatively, adverbconservativeness, nounBritish Dictionary definitions for Conservative (2 of 2)Conservative/ (kənˈsɜːvətɪv) /adjective(in Britain, Canada, and elsewhere)of, supporting, or relating to a Conservative Partyof, relating to, or characterizing Conservative Judaismnouna supporter or member of a Conservative PartyCollins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition

Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012Cultural definitions for conservativeconservativeA descriptive term for persons, policies, and beliefs associated with conservatism.The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition

Copyright © 2005 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved.Browse#aabbccddeeffgghhiijjkkllmmnnooppqqrrssttuuvvwwxxyyzzAboutCareersShopContact usAdvertise with usCookies, terms, & privacyDo not sell my infoFollow usGet the Word of the Day every day!Sign upBy clicking "Sign Up", you are accepting Dictionary.com Terms & Conditions and Privacy Policies.My account© 2024 Dictionary.com, LLC

Conservatism in the United States - Wikipedia

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1Overview

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1.1Types

1.2Ideology and political philosophy

1.3Social views

1.4Economic views

1.5Views on foreign policy

2History

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2.1John Adams

2.2Classical liberalism

2.3Veterans organizations

2.4School prayer debate

2.5Reagan Era

321st-century policies

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3.1The environment

3.2Law and order

3.3Economics

3.4Social issues

3.5Race and culture

3.6Reaction to liberalism

4Electoral politics

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4.1Geography

5Other topics

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5.1Russell Kirk's principles of conservatism

5.2Courts

5.2.1Originalism

5.2.2Federalism

5.3Semantics, language, and media

5.3.1Socialism

5.4Modern media

5.5Science and academia

5.5.1Attitudes towards science

5.5.2Admission to academia

5.5.3Relativism versus absolutism

6Historiography

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6.1American exceptionalism

7Past thinkers and leaders

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7.1The Giants of American Conservatism

8See also

9References

10Further reading

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10.1Historiography and memory

11External links

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Conservatism in the United States

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"American conservative" redirects here. For the magazine, see The American Conservative.

This article is part of a series onConservatismin the United States

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Works

Democracy and Leadership (1924)

Our Enemy, the State (1935)

Ideas Have Consequences (1948)

God and Man at Yale (1951)

The Conservative Mind (1953)

The Conscience of a Conservative (1960)

A Choice Not an Echo (1964)

Roots of American Order (1974)

A Conflict of Visions (1987)

The Closing of the American Mind (1987)

A Republic, Not an Empire (1999)

Hillbilly Elegy (2017)

The Benedict Option (2017)

The Right Side of History (2019)

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Economics

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Gun rights

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American Conservative Union

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National Conservative PAC

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Other

ConservAmerica

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Regnery Publishing

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Media

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New York Post

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Commentary

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TV channels

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Websites

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Alternative media

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Variants and movements

Asian and Pacific Islander

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Militia movement

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See also

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Barstool conservatism

Bibliography

Conservative talk radio

CPAC

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Conservatism portal

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Part of a series onConservatism

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Familialism

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Historism

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Law and order

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Organicism

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Property rights

Public morality

Social hierarchy

Social institutions

Social norms

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Tradition

Intellectuals

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Works

Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)

Considerations on France (1796)

Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism (1798)

The Genius of Christianity (1802)

On the Pope (1819)

Elements of the Philosophy of Right (1820)

Democracy in America (1835)

The Concept of the Political (1932)

The Conservative Mind (1953)

The Conscience of a Conservative (1960)

How to Be a Conservative (2014)

Politicians

Adams

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In the United States, conservatism is based on a belief in limited government, individualism, traditionalism, republicanism, and limited federal governmental power in relation to U.S. states.[1] Conservative and Christian media organizations, along with American conservative figures, are influential, and American conservatism is one of the majority political ideologies within the Republican Party.[2][3][4]

American conservatives tend to support Christian values,[5] moral absolutism,[6] traditional family values,[7] and American exceptionalism,[8] while opposing abortion, euthanasia, same-sex marriage, and transgender rights.[9] They tend to favor economic liberalism and neoliberalism,[10][11] and are generally pro-business and pro-capitalism,[12][13] while opposing communism and labor unions.[14][15][16] They often advocate for a strong national defense, gun rights, capital punishment, and a defense of Western culture from perceived threats posed by communism and moral relativism.[17][18] 21st-century American conservatives tend to question epidemiology, climate change, and evolution more frequently than moderates or liberals.[19][20][21]

Overview[edit]

In the United States today, conservative is often used very differently from the way it is used in Europe and Asia. Following the American Revolution, Americans rejected the core ideals of European conservatism; those ideals were based on the landed aristocracy, hereditary monarchy, established churches, and powerful armies.

American conservatives generally consider individual liberty within the bounds of conservative values as the fundamental trait of democracy.[22][23] They typically believe in a balance between federal government and states' rights. Apart from some right-libertarians, American conservatives tend to favor strong action in areas they believe to be within government's legitimate jurisdiction, particularly national defense and law enforcement. Social conservatives—many of them religious—often oppose abortion and same-sex marriage. They often favor prayer in public schools and government funding for private religious schools.[24][25][7][26]

Like most political ideologies in the United States, conservatism originates from republicanism, which rejects aristocratic and monarchical government and upholds the principles of the 1776 U.S. Declaration of Independence ("that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness") and of the U.S. Constitution, which established a federal republic under the rule of law. Conservative philosophy also derives in part from the classical liberal tradition of the 18th and 19th centuries, which advocated laissez-faire economics (i.e. economic freedom and deregulation).[27][28] However, in the twenty-first century, two-thirds of Southern Republicans favor seceding from the United States.[29]

While historians such as Patrick Allitt (born 1956) and political theorists such as Russell Kirk (1918–1994) assert that conservative principles have played a major role in U.S. politics and culture since 1776, they also argue that an organized conservative movement with beliefs that differ from those of other American political parties did not emerge in the U.S. at least until the 1950s.[30][31][32] The recent movement conservatism has its base in the Republican Party, which has adopted conservative policies since the 1950s; Southern Democrats also became important early figures in the movement's history.[33][34][35][36]

In 1937, conservative Republicans and Southern Democrats formed the congressional conservative coalition, which played an influential role in Congress from the late 1930s to the mid-1960s. In recent decades, Southern conservatives voted heavily Republican.

Types[edit]

See also: Factions in the Republican Party (United States)

Conservatism in the United States is not a single school of thought.[37] Barry Goldwater in the 1960s spoke for a "free enterprise" conservatism. Jerry Falwell in the 1980s preached traditional moral and religious social values.

The history of American conservatism has been marked by tensions and competing ideologies, but at least during the era of Ronald Reagan,[38] a coalition of ideologies was formed that was known as "the Three Leg Stool" — the three legs being social conservatives (consisting of the Christian right and paleo-conservatives), war hawks (consisting of interventionists and neoconservatives), and fiscal conservatives (consisting of right-libertarians and free-market capitalists), with overlap between the sides.[39][40][41]

In the 21st century United States, types of conservatism include:

Christian conservatism, whose proponents are primarily Christian fundamentalists focused on the traditional nuclear family rooted in religion. Typical positions include the view that the United States was founded as a Christian nation rather than a secular one and that abortion should be restricted or outlawed. Many attack the profanity and sexuality prevalent in modern media and society and often oppose pornography and LGBT rights while supporting abstinence-only sex education.[42] This faction strongly supported Reagan in the 1980 election. Nevertheless, they intensely opposed the Reagan's 1981 nomination of Sandra Day O'Connor to the Supreme Court because she supported a woman's right to abortion. She was confirmed unanimously anyway.[43]

Related to Christian conservatism is Social conservatism, which focuses on the preservation of traditional moral values, often rooted in the nuclear family and religion, that they see as threatened by secularism and moral relativism. They tend to support prayer in public schools and school vouchers for religious schools, while opposing abortion and LGBT rights.[44][45][46][9][47]

Constitutional conservatism, a form of conservatism bound within the limits provided within the United States Constitution, defending the structures of constitutionalism and enumerated powers, and preserving the principles of the United States Constitution.[48] Chief among those principles is the defense of liberty.[49] This form of conservatism coalesced in the Republican Party in the early 20th century, in opposition to progressivism within the party; it can also be seen being influential to the 21st century Tea Party movement.[50][51] Constitutional conservatism has also been associated with judicial originalism.[52][53][54]

Fiscal conservatism, a form of conservatism that focuses on low taxes and restrained government spending.

Libertarian conservatism, a fusion with libertarianism. This type emphasizes a strict interpretation of the Constitution, particularly with regard to federal power. Libertarian conservatism is constituted by a broad, sometimes conflicted, coalition including pro-business social moderates, so-called "deficit hawks", those favoring more rigid enforcement of states' rights, individual liberty activists, and many of those who place their socially liberal ideology ahead of their fiscal beliefs. This mode of thinking tends to espouse laissez-faire economics and a critical view of the federal government, its surveillance programs and its foreign military interventions. Libertarian conservatives' emphasis on personal freedom often leads them to have social positions contrary to those of social conservatives, especially on such issues as marijuana, abortion and gay marriage. Ron Paul and his son Rand Paul have been influential proponents in the Republican presidential contests, while still maintaining many socially conservative values.[55] Fiscal conservatives and libertarians favor capitalism, individualism, limited government, and laissez-faire economics. They advocate low taxes, free markets, deregulation, privatization, and reduced government spending and government debt.[27][28]

National conservatism, a modern variant of conservatism and nationalism that concentrates on upholding national and cultural identity.[56] Advocated by supporters of President Donald Trump that breaks with the "conservative consensus, forged by Cold War politics" of "markets and moralism".[57] It seeks to preserve national interests, emphasizes American nationalism, strict law and order policies[58] and social conservatism (revolving around the nuclear family),[57] opposes illegal immigration and supports laissez-faire or free market economic policy.[59] A 2019 political conference featuring "public figures, journalists, scholars, and students" dubbed this variety of conservatism "National Conservatism".[60] Critics allege its adherents are merely attempting to wrest "a coherent ideology out of the chaos of the Trumpist moment".[61][62]

Neoconservatism, a modern form of conservatism that supports a more assertive, interventionist foreign policy, aimed at promoting democracy abroad. It is tolerant of an activist government at home, but is focused mostly on international affairs. Neoconservatism was first described by a group of disaffected liberals, and thus Irving Kristol, usually credited as its intellectual progenitor, defined a neoconservative as "a liberal who was mugged by reality". Although originally regarded as an approach to domestic policy (the founding instrument of the movement, Kristol's The Public Interest periodical, did not even cover foreign affairs), through the influence of figures like Dick Cheney, Robert Kagan, Richard Perle, Kenneth Adelman and (Irving's son) Bill Kristol, it has become most famous for its association with the foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration in the Middle East that used aggressive military action to ostensibly promote democracy and protect American interests.[63][64] Neoconservatives want to expand what they see as American ideals throughout the world.[65]

Paleoconservatism, in part a rebirth of the Old Right arising in the 1980s in reaction to neoconservatism. Paleoconservatives advocate restrictions on immigration, non-interventionist foreign policy, and opposition to multiculturalism.[66] Most conservative factions nationwide, except some libertarians, support a unilateral foreign policy, and a strong military. Most, especially libertarians, support gun ownership rights, citing the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution. The conservative movement of the 1950s attempted to bring together these divergent strands, stressing the need for unity to prevent the spread of "godless communism".[67] It stresses tradition, especially Christian tradition and the importance to society of the traditional family. Some such as Samuel P. Huntington argue that multiracial, multi-ethnic, and egalitarian states are inherently unstable.[68] Paleoconservatives are generally isolationist, and suspicious of foreign influence. The magazines Chronicles and The American Conservative are generally considered to be paleoconservative in nature.[69]

Traditionalist conservatism, a form of conservatism in opposition to rapid change in political and social institutions. This kind of conservatism is anti-ideological insofar as it emphasizes means (slow change) over ends (any particular form of government). To the traditionalist, whether one arrives at a right- or left-wing government is less important than whether change is effected through rule of law rather than through revolution and utopian schemes.[70]

Blue Dog Coalition ideology, the set of values and policy held by most conservative Democrats and the coalition that represents them.[71][72]

Ideology and political philosophy[edit]

William F. Buckley Jr., an author who founded National Review magazine in 1955

In the first 1955 issue of National Review, William F. Buckley Jr. explained the standards of his magazine and helped make explicit the beliefs of American conservatives:[73]

Among our convictions: It is the job of centralized government (in peacetime) to protect its citizens' lives, liberty and property. All other activities of government tend to diminish freedom and hamper progress. The growth of government (the dominant social feature of this century) must be fought relentlessly. In this great social conflict of the era, we are, without reservations, on the libertarian side. The profound crisis of our era is, in essence, the conflict between the Social Engineers, who seek to adjust mankind to scientific utopias, and the disciples of Truth, who defend the organic moral order. We believe that truth is neither arrived at nor illuminated by monitoring election results, binding though these are for other purposes, but by other means, including a study of human experience. On this point we are, without reservations, on the conservative side.

According to Peter Viereck, American conservatism is distinctive because it was not tied to a monarchy, landed aristocracy, established church, or military elite.[74] Instead American conservatives were firmly rooted in American republicanism, which European conservatives opposed. They are committed, says Seymour Martin Lipset, to the belief in America's "superiority against the cold reactionary monarchical and more rigidly status-bound system of European society".[75]

In terms of governmental economic policies, American conservatives have been heavily influenced by the classical liberal or libertarian tradition as expressed by Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman, and a major source of influence has been the Chicago school of economics. They have been strongly opposed to Keynesian economics.[76][77]

Traditional (Burkean) conservatives tend to be anti-ideological, and some would even say anti-philosophical,[78] promoting, as Russell Kirk explained, a steady flow of "prescription and prejudice". Kirk's use of the word "prejudice" here is not intended to carry its contemporary pejorative connotation: a conservative himself, he believed that the inherited wisdom of the ages may be a better guide than apparently rational individual judgment.

Through much of the 20th century, a primary force uniting the varied strands of conservatism, and uniting conservatives with liberals and socialists, was opposition to communism, which was seen not only as an enemy of the traditional order but also the enemy of Western freedom and democracy. Between 1945 and 1947, it was the Labour government in the United Kingdom, which embraced socialism, that pushed the Truman administration to take a strong stand against Soviet Communism.[79]

Social views[edit]

Main article: Social conservatism in the United States

See also: Bible Belt and Traditionalist conservatism in the United States

Social conservatism in the United States is the defense of traditional family values rooted in Judeo-Christian ethics and the nuclear family.[5][80][81]

There are two overlapping subgroups of social conservatives: the traditional and the religious. Traditional conservatives strongly support traditional codes of conduct, especially those they feel are threatened by social change and modernization. Religious conservatives focus on conducting society based on the morals prescribed by fundamentalist religious authorities, rejecting secularism and moral relativism. In the United States, this translates into hard-line stances on moral issues, such as opposition to abortion, LGBT rights, feminism, pornography, comprehensive sex education, and recreational drug use.

Religious conservatives often assert that America is a Christian nation, calling for laws that enforce Christian morality. They often support school prayer, vouchers for parochial schools, and restricting or outlawing abortion.[7][26][9] Social conservatives are strongest in the Southern "Bible Belt" and in recent years played a major role in the political coalitions of George W. Bush and Donald Trump.[82]

Economic views[edit]

Main articles: Economic liberalism and Fiscal conservatism

Fiscal conservatism has ideological roots in neoliberalism, capitalism, limited government, free enterprise, and laissez-faire economics. Fiscal conservatives typically support tax cuts, reduced government spending, free markets, deregulation, privatization, free trade, minimal government debt, and a balanced budget. They argue that low taxes produce more jobs and wealth for everyone, and, as President Grover Cleveland said, "unnecessary taxation is unjust taxation".[83] A recent movement against the inheritance tax labels such a tax as a "death tax." Fiscal conservatives often argue that competition in the free market is more effective than the regulation of industry and is the most efficient way to promote economic growth. Some make exceptions in the case of trusts or monopolies, or in favor of protectionism instead of free trade. Others, such as some libertarians and followers of Ludwig von Mises, believe all government intervention in the economy is wasteful, corrupt, and immoral.[27][28]

Fiscal conservatism advocates restraint of progressive taxation and expenditure. Fiscal conservatives since the 19th century have argued that debt is a device to corrupt politics; they argue that big spending ruins the morals of the people, and that a national debt creates a dangerous class of speculators. A political strategy employed by conservatives to achieve a smaller government is known as starve the beast. Activist Grover Norquist is a well-known proponent of the strategy and has famously said, "My goal is to cut government in half in twenty-five years, to get it down to the size where we can drown it in the bathtub."[84][85] The argument in favor of balanced budgets is often coupled with a belief that government welfare programs should be narrowly tailored and that tax rates should be low, which implies relatively small government institutions.[86]

Views on foreign policy[edit]

Main articles: Neoconservatism and National conservatism

President Ronald Reagan holding a "Stop Communism" t-shirt on the South Lawn of the White House in March 1986

Neoconservatism emphasizes foreign policy over domestic policy. Its supporters, mainly war hawks, advocate a more militaristic, interventionist foreign policy aimed at promoting democracy abroad, which stands in stark contrast to Paleoconservatisms more isolationist foreign policy. Neoconservatives often name communism and Islamism as the biggest threats to the free world.[63] They often oppose the United Nations for interfering with American unilateralism.[87]

National conservatism focuses on upholding national and cultural identity. National conservatives strongly identify with American nationalism, patriotism, and American exceptionalism, while opposing internationalism, globalism, and multiculturalism. The movement seeks to promote national interests through the preservation of traditional cultural values,[57] restrictions on illegal immigration,[59] and strict law and order policies.[58]

History[edit]

Main article: History of conservatism in the United States

In the United States, there has never been a national political party called the Conservative Party.[88] Since 1962, there has been a small Conservative Party of New York State. During Reconstruction in several states in the South in the late 1860s, the former Whigs formed a Conservative Party. They soon merged it into the state Democratic Parties.[89]

All of the major American political parties support republicanism and the basic classical liberal ideals on which the country was founded in 1776, emphasizing liberty, the rule of law, the consent of the governed, and that all men were created equal.[90] Political divisions inside the United States often seemed minor or trivial to Europeans, where the divide between the left and the right led to violent polarization, starting with the French Revolution.[91]

Historian Patrick Allitt expresses the difference between liberal and conservative in terms not of policy but of attitude:

Certain continuities can be traced through American history. The conservative 'attitude' ... was one of trusting to the past, to long-established patterns of thought and conduct, and of assuming that novelties were more likely to be dangerous than advantageous.[92]

No American party has ever advocated traditional European ideals of "conservatism" such as a monarchy, an established church, or a hereditary aristocracy. American conservatism is best characterized as a reaction against utopian ideas of progress[93] and European political philosophy from before the end of World War II.[94] Russell Kirk saw the American Revolution itself as "a conservative reaction, in the English political tradition, against royal innovation".[95][undue weight? – discuss]

In the 2022 book The Right: The Hundred-Year War for American Conservatism, Matthew Continetti noted that the American conservative movement has been fractured for a century.[96]

John Adams[edit]

Main article: John Adams

Political conservatives have emphasized an identification with the Founding Fathers of the United States and the U.S. Constitution.[97] Scholars of conservative political thought "generally label John Adams as the intellectual father of American conservatism".[98] Russell Kirk points to Adams as the key Founding Father for conservatives, saying that "some writers regard him as America's most important conservative public man".[99] Clinton Rossiter writes:

Here was no lover of government by plutocracy, no dreamer of an America filled with factions and hard-packed cities. Here was a man who loved America as it was and had been, one whose life was a doughty testament to the trials and glories of ordered liberty. Here ... was the model of the American conservative.[100]

A. Owen Aldridge places Adams, "At the head of the conservative ranks in the early years of the Republic and Jefferson as the leader of the contrary liberal current."[101] It was a fundamental doctrine for Adams that all men are subject to equal laws of morality. He held that in society all men have a right to equal laws and equal treatment from the government. However, he added, "no two men are perfectly equal in person, property, understanding, activity, and virtue."[102] Peter Viereck commented:

Hamilton, Adams, and their Federalist party sought to establish in the new world what they called a "natural aristocracy". [It was to be] based on property, education, family status, and sense of ethical responsibility. ... Their motive was liberty itself.[103]

Classical liberalism[edit]

Historian Kathleen G. Donohue argues that classical liberalism in the United States during the 19th century had distinctive characteristics as opposed to Britain:

[A]t the center of classical liberal theory [in Europe] was the idea of laissez-faire. To the vast majority of American classical liberals, however, laissez-faire did not mean no government intervention at all. On the contrary, they were more than willing to see government provide tariffs, railroad subsidies, and internal improvements, all of which benefited producers. What they condemned was intervention in behalf of consumers.[104]

Insofar as it is ideological, economic liberalism owes its creation to the classical liberal tradition in the vein of Adam Smith, Friedrich Hayek, Milton Friedman, and Ludwig von Mises.[104] Classical liberals supported free markets on moral, ideological grounds: principles of individual liberty morally dictate support for free markets. Supporters of the moral grounds for free markets include Ayn Rand and Ludwig von Mises. The liberal tradition is suspicious of government authority and prefers individual choice, and hence tends to see free market capitalism as the preferable means of achieving economic ends.[27][28]

Economic liberalism borrows from two schools of thought: the classical liberals' pragmatism and the libertarians' notion of "rights". The classical liberal maintains that free markets work best, while the libertarian contends that free markets are the only ethical markets. A belief in the importance of the civil society is another reason why conservatives support a smaller role for the government in the economy. As noted by Alexis de Tocqueville, there is a belief that a bigger role of the government in the economy will make people feel less responsible for the society. These responsibilities would then need to be taken over by the government, requiring higher taxes. In his book Democracy in America, Tocqueville described this as "soft oppression".[27][28]

Veterans organizations[edit]

An American Legion postcard urging parents to teach religion to their children as a civic duty, c. 1930s

There have been numerous large veterans organizations in American history, most notably the Grand Army of the Republic (GAR), the Veterans of Foreign Wars, and the American Legion.[105] They have generally tended to be conservative in politics, with an emphasis on veterans' benefits. The GAR, according to Stuart McConnell, promoted, "a nationalism that honored white, native-stock, middle-class males and ...affirmed a prewar ideal of a virtuous, millennial Republic, based on the independent producer, entrepreneurial capitalism, and the citizen-soldier volunteer".[106] Political conservatism has been an important aspect of the American Legion since its founding in the 1920s.[107] The American Legion always paid very close attention to domestic subversion, especially the threat of domestic communism. However, it paid little attention to foreign affairs before 1945. It ignored the League of Nations and was hostile to the Washington Naval Conference of 1921 that rolled back the naval arms race in the 1920s. Pacifism was popular in the 1920s, and Legion locals ridiculed it and sometimes booed the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom. During World War II, it accepted the wartime alliance with Stalin against Nazi Germany. As the Cold War emerged in 1946–1947, the Legion paid increasing attention to an anti-Soviet foreign policy.[108] Its Counter-Subversive Activities Committee in 1946 began publishing the American Legion Firing Line, a newsletter for members which provides information on communist, fascist, and other extremist groups to its subscribers. It warned members against far-right groups such as the John Birch Society and antisemitic groups. By the late 1950s, the newsletter became much more interested in foreign affairs.[109]

The Legion's policy resolutions endorsed large-scale defense spending and the deployment of powerful new weapon systems from the hydrogen bomb in the 1950s to Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative in the 1980s. Harry S. Truman was the first Legionnaire to occupy the White House, but he came under Legion attack for waging a limited war in Korea and not following the advice of General Douglas MacArthur in attacking China. By 1961, the Legion outright rejected the policy of containment, and called for the liberation of the captive peoples in Eastern Europe. The Legion publications typically hailed Barry Goldwater, a member, as a political role model, but like Goldwater and William F. Buckley, they rejected the extremism of the John Birch Society. The Legion supported increased intervention in Vietnam and support of anti-Communist forces in Central America and Afghanistan. The Legion never saw much benefit in the United Nations, and like other conservatives worried about a loss of American sovereignty to international bodies. The collapse of Soviet-style communism in Eastern Europe and in Russia itself saw the American Legion looking to new venues for militaristic action. It praised President George H. W. Bush's intervention in Kuwait against Iraq in 1990. After the September 11 attacks, it vigorously endorsed President George W. Bush's strategy of a global war on terror, and it supported the invasion of Iraq in 2003.[110]

School prayer debate[edit]

In 1962, the Supreme Court Engel v. Vitale decision banned state-written prayers in public schools. White evangelicals mostly supported that decision. However, they saw the 1963 Abington School District v. Schempp decision to ban school-sponsored Bible reading and school-organized praying of the Lord's Prayer from those schools as an affront. The Supreme Court ruled that prayer organized by the school was not voluntary since students were coerced or publicly embarrassed if they did not follow along. Nevertheless, the conservatives continued to call for voluntary school prayer, which is already protected under law, and repeatedly attacked the Supreme Court on this issue and on other issues, especially abortion. The evangelicals had long been avid supporters of the public schools. Now they had to reconsider their place in both schools and society as a whole. They concluded with surprising unanimity that those school decisions had done more than forced evangelical belief out of America's public schools; the decisions had pushed evangelicals themselves out of America's mainstream culture. Alienated, they moved into the religious right and by 1980 were avid supporters of Ronald Reagan.[111][112][113]

Reagan Era[edit]

Ronald Reagan gives a televised address from the Oval Office, outlining his plan for tax reductions in July 1981 (excerpt).

The archetypal free market conservative administrations of the late 20th century—the Margaret Thatcher government in Britain and the Ronald Reagan administration in the U.S.—both held unfettered operation of the market to be the cornerstone of contemporary modern conservatism.[114] To that end, Thatcher privatized industries and public housing, and Reagan cut the maximum capital gains tax from 28% to 20%, though in his second term he agreed to raise it back up to 28%. Reagan also cut individual income-tax rates, lowering the maximum rate from 70% to 28%. He increased defense spending, but liberal Democrats blocked his efforts to cut domestic spending.[115] Reagan did not control the rapid increase in federal government spending or reduce the deficit, but his record looks better when expressed as a percent of the gross domestic product. Federal revenues as a percent of the GDP fell from 19.6% in 1981 when Reagan took office to 18.3% in 1989 when he left. Federal spending fell slightly from 22.2% of the GDP to 21.2%. This contrasts with statistics from 2004, when government spending was rising more rapidly than it had in decades.[116]

President Ronald Reagan set the conservative standard in the 1980s. By the 2010s, the Republican leaders typically claimed fealty to it. For example, most of the Republican candidates in 2012 "claimed to be standard bearers of Reagan's ideological legacy".[117] Reagan solidified Republican strength by uniting its fiscal conservatives, social conservatives, and national conservatives into a conservative coalition. He did so with tax cuts, continued deregulation, a greatly increased military budget, a policy of rollback of Communism (as opposed to just containing it), and appeals to family values and religious morality. The 1980s and beyond became known as the Reagan Era.[118] Typically, conservative politicians and spokesmen in the 21st century proclaim their devotion to Reagan's ideals and policies on most social, economic, and foreign policy issues.[citation needed]

21st-century policies[edit]

According to conservative academic Sean Speer, the most important developments within the 21st century American conservative movement include the rise of Donald Trump and right-wing populism more broadly, an emerging movement within conservatism that is opposed to both post-Cold War neoliberalism and liberalism more broadly, the return of competition between great powers and a possible new Cold War with China, a generational change within conservatism causing a renewed emphasis on identity and culture among younger conservative figures, the rise of social media platforms causing a fragmentation of traditional media platforms, and mainstream institutions being increasingly dominated by progressives promoting identity politics or "wokeism."[96] Speer adds that these developments have caused "an erosion of the conservative consensus involving free markets, social conservatism, and a hawkish foreign policy (sometimes described as "fusionism") that provided the intellectual scaffolding for American conservatism essentially from the launch of National Review magazine in the mid-1950s to the second term of George W. Bush's presidency."[96]

Long-term shifts in American conservative thinking following the election of Trump have been described as a "new fusionism" of traditional conservative ideology and right-wing populist themes.[119] These have resulted in shifts towards greater support of national conservatism,[120] protectionism,[121] cultural conservatism, a more realist foreign policy, a conspiracist sub-culture, a repudiation of neoconservatism, reduced efforts to roll back entitlement programs, and a disdain for traditional checks and balances.[119]

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conservative adjective - Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes | Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com

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Definition of conservative adjective from the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary

conservative adjective OPAL W /kənˈsɜːvətɪv/ /kənˈsɜːrvətɪv/

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opposed to great or sudden social change; showing that you prefer traditional styles and valuesthe conservative views of his parentsmusic which is accessible to an audience with extremely conservative tastesThe southern state's inhabitants tend to be socially conservative.Her style of dress was never conservative. conservative in something They were deeply conservative in their outlook.Extra ExamplesBanks are notoriously conservative about their dealings with clients.Her views are by no means ideologically conservative.She takes a basically conservative view of society.a fundamentally conservative political outlooka staunchly conservative nomineea traditionally conservative professionmoderately conservative votersthe army's inherently conservative valuesthe culturally conservative world of commerce and industryPopular taste in art remained conservative.She was dressed neatly in conservative black.The peasantry were no longer a conservative force in society.With age, enthusiasm for the radical is often replaced with more conservative views of the world.Topics Politicsb2Oxford Collocations Dictionaryverbsbebecomeremain…adverbextremelyfairlyvery…See full entry

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(usually Conservative) connected with the British Conservative PartyConservative members/supportersTopics Politicsb2Oxford Collocations Dictionaryverbsbebecomeremain…adverbextremelyfairlyvery…See full entry

(of an estimate) lower than what is probably the real amount or numberAt a conservative estimate, he'll be earning £50 000.The gloomy forecasts are based on overly conservative projections of growth. Word Originlate Middle English (in the sense ‘aiming to preserve’): from late Latin conservativus, from conservat- ‘conserved’, from the verb conservare ‘to preserve’, from con- ‘together’ + servare ‘to keep’. Current senses date from the mid 19th cent.See conservative in the Oxford Advanced American DictionarySee conservative in the Oxford Learner's Dictionary of Academic EnglishCheck pronunciation:

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What Is a Conservative? Understanding How the Term Works in American Politics | Teen Vogue

Is a Conservative? Understanding How the Term Works in American Politics | Teen VogueSkip to main contentNewsletterSearchSearchSTYLEPOLITICSCULTUREIDENTITYVIDEOSUMMITSHOPPINGNewsletterPoliticsWhat Is a Conservative? Understanding How the Term Works in American PoliticsKeywords is a column that decodes the lingo of American politics and media.By John Patrick Leary August 4, 2023Wally McNamee/Getty ImagesThis column is supported by the journalism nonprofit the Economic Hardship Reporting Project.The evergreen questions raised by the label “conservative” are: Conserving what and from whom?Let’s dispense with one popular answer to this question, asserted by many American conservatives and liberals alike: that proper conservatives are devoted to “small government” or engaged in protecting “individual liberties” from a big government. These are slogans of today’s Republican Party, but there’s no good argument to believe that the party behind the War on Drugs (Richard Nixon, and later Ronald Reagan, George H.W. Bush, and every Republican since), the PATRIOT Act (George W. Bush), the first and second Iraq War (Both Bushes), massive police funding, eliminating the right to abortion, Don’t Say Gay laws, and school book bans is, in any way that makes sense, devoted to “limiting” the power of the government. To make sense of the word "conservative" we have to dig deeper than headlines and slogans.Like a lot of our political vocabulary — see also: “left” and “right,” — the political meaning of “conservative” came as a result of the French Revolution of 1789, when democratic radicals deposed the monarchy and the aristocracy. Soon after, in 1818, defenders of the French Old Regime founded a pro-monarchy journal, Le Conservateur, that first used “conservative” in the modern, political sense. The magazine listed what it stood for in its first issue: “religion, the King, liberty…and upstanding people.” These were the things under threat from the new society formed after the Revolution.Modern-day conservatives don’t necessarily want to protect or “conserve” the same things as their 19th-century brethren. (Not too many Americans will admit to being monarchists.) But they do share a fundamental dilemma with their French forebears: Defining yourself in terms of an old order and its enemies makes it difficult to explain the sort of future you want to build. On one hand, conservatives defend tradition and duty; on the other, the definitions of these things shift with every generation. And what good is a tradition if it changes all the time?In 1790, the Irishman Edmund Burke authored Reflections on the Revolution in France, a polemic against the revolution that has become the foundational text of English-language conservatives. Burke didn’t share the backward-looking attitude of Le Conservateur. Burke conceded that societies needed to transform over time, but he argued for a principle of social change that followed the examples of changes in “nature” or families, that is, slowly, over generations, and never all at once. Burke thought society should “conserve” what is worthy about past traditions, making judgments about what should and should not endure. (I’d note this is the difference between a preservative, which preserves something, whether it be strawberries or something else, just the way it was, and a conservative, which conserves something about it.) As Burke wrote, “A state without the means of some change is without the means of its conservation.” In other words, a society and its traditions cannot endure unless it can also change.This brings us back to the original question: What should change and what should endure, and what is the principle by which one decides? Again, conservatives face the problem of defining themselves negatively, against what they dislike. “Liberal,” by contrast, takes its name from a positive ideal — liberty. “Conservative,” much like “progressive,” names only an attitude about political change over time. In 1960, the economist Friedrich Hayek, who many people would describe as politically conservative, wrote an essay titled, “Why I Am Not A Conservative,” in which he argued that conservatives had not overcome this basic problem. “By its very nature,” Hayek wrote, conservatism “cannot offer an alternative to the direction in which we are moving.” It defined itself only against other political identities, he wrote, decrying what it is against without offering a positive direction of its own.Political scientist Corey Robin has recently argued that conservatism’s most consistent traits are 1) a veneration of hierarchy and order and 2) a fear of the lower orders. “Though it is often claimed that the left stands for equality while the right stands for freedom,” wrote Robin in his 2011 book The Reactionary Mind, “this notion misstates the actual disagreement between right and left. Historically, the conservative has favored liberty for the higher orders and constraint for the lower orders.” And, he goes on, it has historically defined itself against the movements it opposes.To be fair, all political persuasions define themselves, in part, by what they are against. But it’s especially true of conservatism, whose very name signals commitment to conserving something being lost or taken away. This helps explain the never-ending identity crisis that shapes so much of the culture of American conservatives, which is engaged in constant arguments about what it means to be a true conservative (and the confessional mini-genre of articles called, “Why I Am A Conservative”). It also explains why so many on the right battle phantoms like “wokeness,” “critical race theory,” or the “gay agenda,” forever seeking new enemies to define themselves against. Seeking a more positive definition, the Conservative Political Action Conference (CPAC) defines conservatism as “the political philosophy that sovereignty resides in the person.” Unfortunately for CPAC, plenty of political philosophers would say this is also a definition of “liberalism.”One of the most eloquent rejoinders to the veneration of tradition in conservative thought comes from the American revolutionary Thomas Paine, who criticized Burke’s opposition to the French Revolution. What, Paine asked, are you actually for? Like American conservatives who proclaim their commitment to “conservative values” in a society riven by inequality, fear, and violence, Paine thought Burke was enchanted more by talking about virtue than he was by building a society that supported it. Burke “pities the plumage,” wrote Paine, “but forgets the dying bird.”Stay up-to-date with the politics team. Sign up for the Teen Vogue TakeWant more U.S. government coverage?The True Story of a White Supremacist Insurrection in the U.S.The Main Arguments Against Student Debt Cancellation Are WrongWhat It’s Like to Live In a State Run By Politicians You Can’t StandWhat It’s Like to Be the Daughter of a Supreme Court JusticeThe Current Supreme Court Is IllegitimateKeywordsKeywordsu.s. governmentpoliticsrepublicanssupreme courtu.s. historyRead MoreIdentityFrance Made Abortion a Constitutional Right as a Reaction to Roe Being OverturnedHere's what the country's latest protections mean.By Angie JaimePoliticsWhat Does ‘Solidarity’ Actually Mean?It’s a threat to business-as-usual.By Astra TaylorPoliticsI’m a Rabbi Who Is Calling for Ceasefire. Here’s Why.It’s what my dad, a Holocaust survivor, would have wanted.By Rabbi Elliot KuklaIdentityGhana's Parliament Passed a an Anti-Gay Bill That Could "Legitimize Prejudice"If the bill becomes law, "it will exacerbate fear and hatred," experts say.By Angie JaimeThe young person’s guide to conquering (and saving) the world. Teen Vogue covers the latest in celebrity news, politics, fashion, beauty, wellness, lifestyle, and entertainment.FacebookXPinterestInstagramTiktokMore from Teen VogueAbout Teen VogueNewsletter SignupVideoContactContact UsCareersUser AgreementPrivacy Policy & Cookie StatementYour California Privacy RightsAccessibility HelpCondé Nast StoreVisual StoriesDo Not Sell My Personal Info© 2024 Condé Nast. All rights reserved. Teen Vogue may earn a portion of sales from products that are purchased through our site as part of our Affiliate Partnerships with retailers. The material on this site may not be reproduced, distributed, transmitted, cached or otherwise used, except with the prior written permission of Condé Nast. Ad Choi

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conservative adjective - Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes | Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com

What Is a Conservative? Understanding How the Term Works in American Politics | Teen Vogue

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